一引言自1840年鸦片战争起至1900年义和团运动及八国联军之乱,清政府面对列强的侵凌,一方面被迫签订不平等条约,割地赔款;另一方面则推行洋务运动和派遣学生出国留学等政策,学习西方的科技文化,以图增强国力。然而,清政府的改革措施并未能扭转颓势,在随后多次战役中仍败于列强, I. INTRODUCTION Since the Opium War from 1840 to 1900, the Boxer Rebellion and the turmoil of the Eight-Power Allied Forces, the Qing government, faced with aggression by the powers, was forced to sign an unequal treaty and cut its land for compensation. On the other hand, the Westernization Movement and the dispatch of students abroad Study abroad and other policies, learn from Western science and technology, in an attempt to enhance their national strength. However, the Qing government’s reform measures failed to reverse the decline and remained defeated by the powers in many subsequent campaigns.