Since 1990,New Chinese Military History in the West has remedied scholarly neglect of Chinese warfare and changed the usual stories of mod China.These studies disproved Orientalist assumptions of a unique Chinese way of war or a strategic culture that avoided aggressive confrontation.Scholars also challenge the assumption that Confucian immobility led to a clash of civilizations and decisive defeat in the Opium Wars,First Sino-Japanese War,and Boxer War of 1900.In fact,Qing officials were quick and successful in creating a new military regime.New military histories of the warlords,the Sino-Japanese Wars,and the Chinese Civil War show that developing new types of warfare was central in creating the new nation.All these wars split the country into factions that were supported by outside powers:they were intationalized civil wars.The article also asks how the choice of terms,labels,and categories shapes interpretations and political messages.