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Abstract:the paper attempts to analyze the reading of CET 4 (College English Test) by using Halliday’s systemic-functional grammar. CET4 is required to obtain for non-English major students. And the proportion of reading is large, so doing the reading well is important and is also difficult for college students. The article uses theme, mood and cohesion in text to analyze the reading so as to help the students prepare for the exam better.
Key words:reading analysis;theme;cohesion;mood
1.Introduction
As we all know, College English Test 4 (CET4) is designed for the non-English-majors at the university level. Owing to the importance attached to the reading, so the test required the efficient readers. The essence of efficient readers is, therefore, flexibility includes both speed and comprehension.
This paper attempts to explore this reading of test by applying systemic-functional grammar to analyze it, it has been over 10 years since the exam CET4 held. It has also been reformed in the past few years. After reformed, the proportion of the reading increased. So the key to pass the exam is doing reading well. However, how to do the reading well is the teacher’s main concerns as well as the students’. Through analyzing the text, we can focus on reading for meaning and message from general to specific.
2.a brief historicak review of discourse analysis
Although the study of language in use data as long ago as the times of scholars of Greece and Rome in the western tradition, who separated grammar from rhetoric with the former being the study of language rules in isolation and the latter the ways to achieve more successful effect in using a language, it is generally accepted that discourse analysis grew out of the work in different disciplines beginning from the 1950s.
Halliday (1978) pointed out discourse is a meaningful unit. A discourse produced in a certain context and at the same time it also plays a role in the context. He proposed two steps of text analysis: vocabulary grammar analysis; situational context analysis; cultural context analysis. The first step is analyzing the situational context, include the field of discourse, mode of discourse. The second step is from the function perspective analyzing the pure theory function. It embodies in the thematic structure, information structure, the means of cohesion.
3.Thematic structure analysis
The theory related to my discussion of reading in CET4 (June, 2008) is systemic function linguistics, systemic functional grammar is a multi-functional view of language in which each metafunction (ideational, interpersonal, or textual) assigns a structure to the clause, of the various structures the one giving the clause its character as a message is known as thematic structure.
Thematic structure is made up of theme and rheme. According to Halliday (1994), theme is the point of depature of the message, the remainder of the message is rheme, in which the theme is developed. The thematic status is signaled in English by initial status in the clause or clause complex (Halliday 1994). The following examples are from the reading of CET 4 (June, 2008). I numbered theme of the sentence to aid my discussion here.
1.global warming 2. but 3. we 4 but the more dramatic and meaningful these commitments 5. Al Gore 6. but the real truth 7. from 2003 to 2050, the world’s population 8. if energy use 9. total energy use and greenhouse gas 10. but that’s too slow 11. we 12. with modest growth, energy use and greenhouse 13. no government 14. still, politicians 15. it 16. but it 17. and many signatories 18. the practical conclusion 19. the only solution 20. only an aggressive research and development program 21 the trouble with the global warming debated 22. the inconvenient truth.
Thematic information serves as orientation for the message that is about to come up, which are directly relevant to the goals and purposes of text or text segment. In the passage, at first global warming (T1) plays a role of topic sentence of the first paragraph as well as the whole passage. But- regardless of weather (T2), this term tells us that it must be related to the weather. We(T13) we know the global warming is closely related with us. But the more dramatic and meaningful these commitments (T4) tells readers the opposing or disappointing issues that they are unwilling to see. Al Gore (T5) is a person who presented his view on global warming. But the real truth (T6) attracts our attention to the author’s understanding. From 2003 to 2050 , the world’s population (T7) is related to energy use (T8) and total energy use (T9). But that’s too low (T10) projects the author’s view on global warming is serious. no government (13) is related to politicians (T14) telling the readers the government not to take any effective measures to prevent global warming because it (T15), but it (T16), and many signatories (T17) are thematized. “What the solution to the global warming is”, the readers may ask. The practical coclusion (T18) and the only solution (T19) are the key to the answer. At last, there are two themes (T21, T22) conclude the whole passage. In fact, from themes readers know the whole framework of the passage.
There are also marked themes (T9, T13, T10, T14, T20, T21). They all contain textual themes. The purposes of the author tells readers that the global warming hasn't been highlighted because in (T13) the theme “no” has been chosen. In (T9) the subject is energy use and greenhouse gas and the theme “total” chosen, the author wants to tell readers the situation of energy use shouldn't be neglected. (T19) the theme “practical” chosen aims to tell readers the global warming should be paid attention to it, and its potential disaster is true, no imaginative.
In the above analysis, we see themes perform many different functions. Here, four functions of themes are shown below:
（1）Signaling the maintenance or progression of what the text is about at that point. This is especially done through the choice of subjects as unmarked theme: maintenance is done by keeping to the same as the preceding clause, progression often by selecting a constituent from the preceding Rheme.
（2）Specifying or changing the framework for the interpretation of the following clause (clauses). This is mostly done by the choice of marked theme, especially adjunct, or a thematic equative or predicted theme.
（3）Signalling the boundaries of sections in the text. This is often done by changing from one type of theme choice to another. In many cases, there may be a number of successive themes (typically tree) of different types: a summative theme (e.g. all this), followed by an evaluative one, followed by a framework-changing theme.
（4）Signalling what the speaker thinks is aviable/ useful/important starting point. This is done by repeatedly choosing the same element to appear in (a particular participant, the speaker’s evolution, elements which signal interaction with the hearer, etc.) (Thompson, 2000, cited by 林偉,杨玉晨)
4.Cohesion analysis
As is known to all, the speaker or author attempts, more or less consciously, more or less expertly, more or less successfully, to help the listener to perceive the coherence of the text by organizing the way in which the meaning are expressed. We have been concentrating on one of the main ways doing this, theme choice, which directly affects the structures of the clause itself. There are generally grouped together under the lable of ‘cohesion’ (Halliday, 1994, Halliday and Hasan, 1976, cited in Geoff Thompson).
In the above given examples, the conjunction ‘but ’ appears in (T2, T4,T6,T16) which contribute to the coherence of the text. Conjunction refers to conjunctive relations between adjacent clauses, and is usually explicitly expressed by conjunctive expressions. Halliday and Hasan (1976) make a distinction of five types of conjunction together with a list of conjunctive expressions. Halliday (1994) discusses conjunction under the headings of elaboration, extention and enhancement, which are themselves sub-types of expansion, (the two fundamental logical-sematic relations held between a primary clause and a secondary clause: expansion and projection).
Enhancement means the expansion of one clause by another by qualifying it with some circumstantial features of time, place, cause, condition, manner or matter, e.g., then, after that, finally, up to that point, in the first place, so, for that reason, in that respect, similarly. Halliday (1994) and Halliday and Hasan(1976) offer a detailed presentation of the types and subtypes of conjunction together with the conjunctive expressions. For examples, ‘still’ in T14.
Extention means the expansion of one clause by another by adding some new element, giving an exception to it, or offering an alternative. In other words, extention involves either addition or variation, e.g., and, also, nor, but, etc.. which further explain the former information.
5.Mood analysis
Together the subject and finite make up a component of the clause, that is called the mood. This component plays a vital role in carrying out the interpersonal function of the clauses as exchange in English.
The subject is a familiar term from traditional grammar, although it shoud be remembered that here is being reinterpreted in functional terms. The finite is the first functional element of the verbal group. It is most easily recognized in yes-no questions, since it is the auxiliary which comes in front of the subject. For example, in we will (T13), it occurs in the declarative sentence, the subject is ‘we’ and the finite is ‘will’, and what the meaning the carry?
Thus from an interactional perspective we can see the declarative clause as doing something like the following: the speaker introduces an entity ( the subject) about which he or she wants to make certain claims; she /he then indicates the kind and degree of validity of the claims she/ he is going to make in the finite and s/he then makes the claim in the rest of the clause, for example “ the totalenergy use and greenhouse gas emissions will be 42 percent higher in 2050”, so the author continues to declare his claims but that’s too low, because societies that grow richer use more energy.
6.Conclusion
It is impossible to analyze the reading of CET4 using the whole theory of Halliday’s systemic-functional grammar in such a short paper. But through analyzing the text by applying theme, cohesion, coherence, mood, we can obtain the information of the text quickly, and can also interpret some facts or phenomenon. So, here, two ways you can pay attention to the information placement. First, there is the obvious information to what the author write, for which you should be sensitive it. It is usuallly the primary concern of the writer. Second, the placement of information in the clause and sentence contains signal.
The theme, coherence, mood, discussed in the paper are helpful for doing reading well in the CET4, which is good for students preparing the CET4 exam better.
References：
[1]introducting functional grammar——Geoff Thomoson (外語教学与研究出社).
[2]语言系统与功能——胡壮麟.(北京大学出版社).
[3]语篇分析概要——黄国文.(湖南教育出版社).
[4]英语语篇分析——林伟,杨玉晨.(复旦大学出版社).
[5]语篇的连贯与衔接——胡壮麟(上海外语教育出版社).
[6]2008年6月大学英语四级真题.
Key words:reading analysis;theme;cohesion;mood
1.Introduction
As we all know, College English Test 4 (CET4) is designed for the non-English-majors at the university level. Owing to the importance attached to the reading, so the test required the efficient readers. The essence of efficient readers is, therefore, flexibility includes both speed and comprehension.
This paper attempts to explore this reading of test by applying systemic-functional grammar to analyze it, it has been over 10 years since the exam CET4 held. It has also been reformed in the past few years. After reformed, the proportion of the reading increased. So the key to pass the exam is doing reading well. However, how to do the reading well is the teacher’s main concerns as well as the students’. Through analyzing the text, we can focus on reading for meaning and message from general to specific.
2.a brief historicak review of discourse analysis
Although the study of language in use data as long ago as the times of scholars of Greece and Rome in the western tradition, who separated grammar from rhetoric with the former being the study of language rules in isolation and the latter the ways to achieve more successful effect in using a language, it is generally accepted that discourse analysis grew out of the work in different disciplines beginning from the 1950s.
Halliday (1978) pointed out discourse is a meaningful unit. A discourse produced in a certain context and at the same time it also plays a role in the context. He proposed two steps of text analysis: vocabulary grammar analysis; situational context analysis; cultural context analysis. The first step is analyzing the situational context, include the field of discourse, mode of discourse. The second step is from the function perspective analyzing the pure theory function. It embodies in the thematic structure, information structure, the means of cohesion.
3.Thematic structure analysis
The theory related to my discussion of reading in CET4 (June, 2008) is systemic function linguistics, systemic functional grammar is a multi-functional view of language in which each metafunction (ideational, interpersonal, or textual) assigns a structure to the clause, of the various structures the one giving the clause its character as a message is known as thematic structure.
Thematic structure is made up of theme and rheme. According to Halliday (1994), theme is the point of depature of the message, the remainder of the message is rheme, in which the theme is developed. The thematic status is signaled in English by initial status in the clause or clause complex (Halliday 1994). The following examples are from the reading of CET 4 (June, 2008). I numbered theme of the sentence to aid my discussion here.
1.global warming 2. but 3. we 4 but the more dramatic and meaningful these commitments 5. Al Gore 6. but the real truth 7. from 2003 to 2050, the world’s population 8. if energy use 9. total energy use and greenhouse gas 10. but that’s too slow 11. we 12. with modest growth, energy use and greenhouse 13. no government 14. still, politicians 15. it 16. but it 17. and many signatories 18. the practical conclusion 19. the only solution 20. only an aggressive research and development program 21 the trouble with the global warming debated 22. the inconvenient truth.
Thematic information serves as orientation for the message that is about to come up, which are directly relevant to the goals and purposes of text or text segment. In the passage, at first global warming (T1) plays a role of topic sentence of the first paragraph as well as the whole passage. But- regardless of weather (T2), this term tells us that it must be related to the weather. We(T13) we know the global warming is closely related with us. But the more dramatic and meaningful these commitments (T4) tells readers the opposing or disappointing issues that they are unwilling to see. Al Gore (T5) is a person who presented his view on global warming. But the real truth (T6) attracts our attention to the author’s understanding. From 2003 to 2050 , the world’s population (T7) is related to energy use (T8) and total energy use (T9). But that’s too low (T10) projects the author’s view on global warming is serious. no government (13) is related to politicians (T14) telling the readers the government not to take any effective measures to prevent global warming because it (T15), but it (T16), and many signatories (T17) are thematized. “What the solution to the global warming is”, the readers may ask. The practical coclusion (T18) and the only solution (T19) are the key to the answer. At last, there are two themes (T21, T22) conclude the whole passage. In fact, from themes readers know the whole framework of the passage.
There are also marked themes (T9, T13, T10, T14, T20, T21). They all contain textual themes. The purposes of the author tells readers that the global warming hasn't been highlighted because in (T13) the theme “no” has been chosen. In (T9) the subject is energy use and greenhouse gas and the theme “total” chosen, the author wants to tell readers the situation of energy use shouldn't be neglected. (T19) the theme “practical” chosen aims to tell readers the global warming should be paid attention to it, and its potential disaster is true, no imaginative.
In the above analysis, we see themes perform many different functions. Here, four functions of themes are shown below:
（1）Signaling the maintenance or progression of what the text is about at that point. This is especially done through the choice of subjects as unmarked theme: maintenance is done by keeping to the same as the preceding clause, progression often by selecting a constituent from the preceding Rheme.
（2）Specifying or changing the framework for the interpretation of the following clause (clauses). This is mostly done by the choice of marked theme, especially adjunct, or a thematic equative or predicted theme.
（3）Signalling the boundaries of sections in the text. This is often done by changing from one type of theme choice to another. In many cases, there may be a number of successive themes (typically tree) of different types: a summative theme (e.g. all this), followed by an evaluative one, followed by a framework-changing theme.
（4）Signalling what the speaker thinks is aviable/ useful/important starting point. This is done by repeatedly choosing the same element to appear in (a particular participant, the speaker’s evolution, elements which signal interaction with the hearer, etc.) (Thompson, 2000, cited by 林偉,杨玉晨)
4.Cohesion analysis
As is known to all, the speaker or author attempts, more or less consciously, more or less expertly, more or less successfully, to help the listener to perceive the coherence of the text by organizing the way in which the meaning are expressed. We have been concentrating on one of the main ways doing this, theme choice, which directly affects the structures of the clause itself. There are generally grouped together under the lable of ‘cohesion’ (Halliday, 1994, Halliday and Hasan, 1976, cited in Geoff Thompson).
In the above given examples, the conjunction ‘but ’ appears in (T2, T4,T6,T16) which contribute to the coherence of the text. Conjunction refers to conjunctive relations between adjacent clauses, and is usually explicitly expressed by conjunctive expressions. Halliday and Hasan (1976) make a distinction of five types of conjunction together with a list of conjunctive expressions. Halliday (1994) discusses conjunction under the headings of elaboration, extention and enhancement, which are themselves sub-types of expansion, (the two fundamental logical-sematic relations held between a primary clause and a secondary clause: expansion and projection).
Enhancement means the expansion of one clause by another by qualifying it with some circumstantial features of time, place, cause, condition, manner or matter, e.g., then, after that, finally, up to that point, in the first place, so, for that reason, in that respect, similarly. Halliday (1994) and Halliday and Hasan(1976) offer a detailed presentation of the types and subtypes of conjunction together with the conjunctive expressions. For examples, ‘still’ in T14.
Extention means the expansion of one clause by another by adding some new element, giving an exception to it, or offering an alternative. In other words, extention involves either addition or variation, e.g., and, also, nor, but, etc.. which further explain the former information.
5.Mood analysis
Together the subject and finite make up a component of the clause, that is called the mood. This component plays a vital role in carrying out the interpersonal function of the clauses as exchange in English.
The subject is a familiar term from traditional grammar, although it shoud be remembered that here is being reinterpreted in functional terms. The finite is the first functional element of the verbal group. It is most easily recognized in yes-no questions, since it is the auxiliary which comes in front of the subject. For example, in we will (T13), it occurs in the declarative sentence, the subject is ‘we’ and the finite is ‘will’, and what the meaning the carry?
Thus from an interactional perspective we can see the declarative clause as doing something like the following: the speaker introduces an entity ( the subject) about which he or she wants to make certain claims; she /he then indicates the kind and degree of validity of the claims she/ he is going to make in the finite and s/he then makes the claim in the rest of the clause, for example “ the totalenergy use and greenhouse gas emissions will be 42 percent higher in 2050”, so the author continues to declare his claims but that’s too low, because societies that grow richer use more energy.
6.Conclusion
It is impossible to analyze the reading of CET4 using the whole theory of Halliday’s systemic-functional grammar in such a short paper. But through analyzing the text by applying theme, cohesion, coherence, mood, we can obtain the information of the text quickly, and can also interpret some facts or phenomenon. So, here, two ways you can pay attention to the information placement. First, there is the obvious information to what the author write, for which you should be sensitive it. It is usuallly the primary concern of the writer. Second, the placement of information in the clause and sentence contains signal.
The theme, coherence, mood, discussed in the paper are helpful for doing reading well in the CET4, which is good for students preparing the CET4 exam better.
References：
[1]introducting functional grammar——Geoff Thomoson (外語教学与研究出社).
[2]语言系统与功能——胡壮麟.(北京大学出版社).
[3]语篇分析概要——黄国文.(湖南教育出版社).
[4]英语语篇分析——林伟,杨玉晨.(复旦大学出版社).
[5]语篇的连贯与衔接——胡壮麟(上海外语教育出版社).
[6]2008年6月大学英语四级真题.