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Abstract: The Skopostheorie puts great emphasis on the achievement of the purpose of the translational action. To ensure it, conventions of the target texts should be noticed. Parallel texts are frequently used for this in translation. This paper focuses on the study of the parallel text of Chinese and English tourism text. Comparisons are made at different levels. Thus, translators should keep aware of the differences.
Key words: parallel texts; Chinese and English tourism texts; Skopos
Ⅰ. Skopostheorie and Conventions in Functional Translation
Skopos, a Greek word for ‘purpose’, refers to the purpose of translation. “According to Skopostheorie (the theory that applies the notion of Skopos to translation), the prime principle determining any translation progress is the purpose (Skopos) of the overall translational action.”(Nord, 2001:27)
Whatever the Skopos is, it is the first step to enable the receivers to understand the translation. The translations should make sense in the communicative situation and culture in which it is received.
So, “translators should take a close look at the role conventions play in functionalist approaches to translation.”(Nord, 2001:53) Roughly speaking, in Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained, “conventions will be considered to be implicit or tacit non-binding regulations of behavior, based on common knowledge and the expectation of what others expect you to expect to them (etc.) to do in a certain situation.”(Nord, 2001:53)
Reiss and Vermeer restrict themselves to genre conventions while Nord expands the types of conventions. She takes genre convention, general style conventions, conventions of nonverbal behavior and translation convention into account in functional translation.
With regard to the general style conventions, Nord suggests, “Even when there are similar structures available in the two languages compared, we often find there is a difference in the usage due to different literary traditions and conventions as to what is considered good style.”(2001:55) Therefore, analysis of parallel texts is needed.
Ⅱ. Analysis of Parallel Texts of English and Chinese Tourism Texts
Parallel texts are “two linguistically independent products arising from an identical (or very similar) situation” (Snell-Hornby, 2001:86); that is, they are original texts that, in two cultures, belong to the same text type and genre. Unlike comparative linguistics, which is mostly limited to studying differences in forms, analysis of parallel texts deals with the differences in frequency and distribution on the basis of large corpora of parallel texts.
Here, in this paper, all the examples are just from tourism texts, and the study is just focus on the parallel texts of Chinese and English tourism texts.
2.1 At Lexical Level
The four-character word group is used frequently in Chinese tourism texts. This, especially the idiomatic expressions, with many specific cultural connotations, is the outstanding feature in wording at lexical level. The following example is from a tourist map of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region:
新疆,深居欧亚大陆腹地,位列亚洲大陆中心,有着“三山夹两盆”的地理格局(南有昆仑山,北有阿尔泰山,天山横亘中部,三大山之间有塔里木、准噶尔两大盆地),容纳着世界上许多著名的大山脉、大冰川、大水系、大盆地、大沙漠、大绿洲、大草原……因而形成了新疆大地的千姿百态、风光旖旎、风情万种的自然景观。这里既有高插云天、云蒸雾绕的冰峰雪岭,又有遮天蔽日、松涛阵阵的原始森林和牧草茵茵、繁花似锦的辽阔草原;既有蜿蜒千里、纵横奔腾的名川大河,又有碧波万顷、欧鸟翔集的高山湖泊;既有浩瀚无垠、神秘莫测的沙漠戈壁,又有阡陌相连、瓜果飘香的片片绿洲;既有野生动植物“自由王国”的天然乐园,又有亿万年遗存的光怪陆离的地质奇观。(毛凤凡,2005:23) It seems four-character word groups offer less information, because sometimes the former two characters and the latter two share some similarities in meaning, for example, “遮天” and “蔽日”, “千姿” and“百态”. However, it is by this that the aesthetic perception is aroused and strengthened for Chinese tourists. Four-character word groups can act as the rhetorical device. Hyperbole is a case in point. “高插云天” is an example. In fact, though it is impossible that the peak of the mountain towers into sky, the exaggerated expression produces the image of the extremely lofty mountain.
What’s more, four-character word groups can make the description life-like and vivid. Take“碧波万顷” as an example. “碧” shows the color of the water; “波” depicts a motion of it; “万” is regularly used to convey something in a high degree, e. g. “万里长城”, “万寿无疆” and “万事通”; “顷”, a unit of area, is easy to understand for Chinese, for whom farmland enjoys pride of place. “万顷” indicates the boundless expanse of the lake. Thus, three features (color, state and size) of the lakes come into the readers’ mind by only four characters.
On the contrary, in English tourism texts, the words are more unadorned and plainer. See the introduction to the vales of Usk and Wye:
Many visitors coming to Wales for the first time cross the Seven and Wye river bridges to the castled border town of Chepstow at the mouth of the Wye Valley Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. Chepstow Castle stands impressively on the banks of the river, and the town is encircled by fortified walls with a Gatehouse which now houses the local information center… The Wye Valley road meanders with the river towards Monmouth, but the hilltop road through Trelleck provides panoramic views of the Usk Valley and its rich farmland. The nearby Wolvesnewton folk museum houses a fascinating collection of Victorian and rural crafts… The lower valley of the Usk provides the visitor with a variety of towns and attractions. Abergavenny, a bustling market town, stands at the gateway to the Brecon Beacons National Park, and is an excellent touring center for the Black Mountains and English/Welsh Borderland. Whist the town of Usk itself has a quiet country charm of its own. (胡文仲,1987:192)
It is worth of noting that there is much less adjectives in English tourism texts, and the adjectives used are simpler and common.
2.2 At Syntactic Level
Antithesis structures and parallel structures are very typical element of Chinese tourism texts. As the example above about Xinjiang shows, the two kinds of sentences enhance the sense of beauty. Usually the rhythm of the two structures is balanced, and easy to read out. Thus, these patterns can make an indelible impression to readers. For instance, 崂山,林木苍翠,繁花似锦,到处生机盎然,春天绿芽红花,夏天浓荫蔽日,秋天遍谷金黄,严冬则玉树琼花。(康宁,2005:88) Nevertheless, there is no such typical or a fixed structure with high frequency in English tourism texts.
Another distinction at syntactic level is that Chinese sentences are looser and shorter whereas English ones are longer, with variety of subordinate clauses, prepositional phrases, and/or participles. Sometimes, the relationship between clauses is not direct and clear in Chinese, something like “a combination of phrases about the topic”.(Baker 2000) Usually, there is no or evident marker to indicate the logic between the neighboring clauses. Nevertheless, in English the connection between clauses is relatively close, that is, main clause, subordinate clause, phrase and participle are in a hierarchy of emphasis. And usually the important or new information is expressed in the main clause. Insignificant or given information is provided by subordinate clauses or phrases. Compare the two cases:
福建沿海,水清岩秀,树压礁风,欧鸣呼晴,帆樯映日,风光绮丽非凡。福建最南部的东山岛是新开发的旅游胜地,岛上最奇的是一块久以闻名的风动石。石高约3米多,宽约1米多,重约40吨。上小下大, 底部呈圆弧状,立于一块石盘上,两石相接处仅几寸,狂风吹过,摇晃不定,但从不滚倒。举足蹬之,摇摇欲坠,被称为“天下第一奇石”。(以文,2000:264)
In the first sentence, there is no clear relations among the clauses, but all of them are about the topic—the coastal scenery in Fujian. And though “举足蹬之” is a supposition of “摇摇欲坠”, “if” and “then” do not appear in written form.
No visit to any part of Wales is complete without some time spent in its capital city. A thriving modern center, Cardiff has excellent shopping facilities in its arcades, in the very attractive St. David’s Center, and Queen Street, the main thoroughfare, which is pleasantly pedestrianised.(胡文仲,1987:192-93)
Take the second sentence for example. It is long but the primary information is presented in the main clause “Cardiff has excellent shopping facilities”. “A thriving modern center” is in apposition to Cardiff; “in its arcades, in the very attractive St. David’s Center, and Queen Street” talks about the position of the shopping facilities;“the main thoroughfare, which is pleasantly pedestrianised” is a modifier of the Queen Street. Compared with “Cardiff has excellent shopping facilities” all of these are secondary. This is quite different from the Chinese texts.
2.3.At Textual Level
2.3.1Tenor
Here tenor refers to the relationship between participants involved in the exchange of meaning in the tourism text.
Chinese tourism texts are “tourist attraction-oriented”. The texts pay more attention to the description of the tourist attractions, showing “what tourist attraction is there.” By comparison, English ones are “tourist-oriented”. The texts are persuasive and the focus is on “what visitors can do there.”(毛凤凡,2005:24)
One marker of the distinction is the use of “you/visitor(s)/tourist(s)”. In English tourism texts, the “you/visitor(s)/tourist(s)” enjoys a much higher rate of recurrence than in Chinese counterparts. Such as the example below:
You have made it to the “City by the Bay”. Congratulations, and get ready to have a blast! But where to go, what to do, what to see? These questions can be overwhelming but take heart:
A good way to get a feel of “The City”, is to jump on a Cable Car… Then, if you have a bit savvy, jump on a Cable Car when one is stopped at a Powell Street intersection. You will find that the city is smaller but more wondrous than you might have imagined.
But beware, most people who visit San Francisco for the first time, never want to return home.(高存, 张允,2005:24)
In this text about San Francisco, totally eight sentences, the “you” appears four times. It seems to be friendly and warm to the readers. While in the following Chinese tourism text:
衡山位于湖南省中部,纵横衡阳、衡山、衡东、湘乡、湘潭、长沙等六县市,地跨八百里,峰立七十二,南起“雁阵惊寒,声断衡阳之浦”的衡阳回雁峰,北抵“停车坐爱枫林晚,霜叶红于二月花”的长沙岳麓山。主峰祝融峰,海拔1290米,在湘中南丘陵中卓尔不群,“一览众山小”。衡山就象一幅湘绣,楚天湘水,一览无余;它又象一卷画轴,浓绚淡染,举世无双;它更象一首诗歌,高叹低吟,回味无穷。(魏星,2004:3)
There is no “you” but a general depiction of the mountain. Readers (potential visitors) are not involved in the introduction.
Therefore, the vocative function is direct and explicit in English tourism texts. In contrast, the Chinese way is indirect and implicit. Flowery languages, idiomatic expressions with associative meanings, quotations of famous or authoritative persons, and citation of ancient poems usually fulfill the same function.
2.3.2 Theme
English is subject-prominent while Chinese is topic-prominent. Generally speaking, in English the theme is the subject of the sentence. However, “a Chinese-style topic may or may not be the theme. If initial position is reserved for theme and if topic always occurs in initial position, then the theme and topic presumably the same thing. Topic is something like‘This is my starting point; this is what I am talking about.’”(Baker, 2000:142-43)
In the introduction to Exeter below, the themes of every sentence or clause are the subjects in it.
Exeter is an important commercial center for the South West, and successfully combines the advantages of a modern city with the charm of one with a long and colorful history. Aspects of this history are easily seen in the medieval Cathedral, the Guildhall and the Quay, which is now a popular waterfront venue. Exeter has a population of around 100,000 and has all the shops and cultural and recreational facilities you would expect to find in a thriving university town. Some of the best countryside in Britain is very close to Exeter. The Dartmoor National Park is to the west, and Exmoor, which also has spectacular scenery, is to the north. The coastal town of Exmouth, with its sandy beaches, is about nine miles away. (康宁,2005:86)
Whereas, in the Chinese text, 巫峡两岸,群山相拥,云遮雾绕,奇峰异岭隐没其间,宛如仙境。景色最妙的要数巫山十二峰,而尤以神女峰独具神韵。巡游于此若漫步于大自然的艺术画廊,美不胜收。(贾文波,1999:77)the initiating point is Wu Gorge and all the following are about it. But it is not necessary for Wu Gorge to be the subjects of every clause. For example, the subject of “相拥” is “群山”, of “遮” is “云” and of “绕” is “雾” respectively.
2.3.3 The Amount of Information
Generally speaking, the English tourism texts offer more practical and objective information. They include the transportation, accommodation, expenses and route(胡文仲,1987:191-92), even the shortcoming of the scenic spot(杨敏,纪爱梅,2003:33). Chinese ones contain no such information. But besides florid delineation of tourist sites, there are introduction to the social status of the tourism attractions, detailed historical outline, sometimes even the achievement in tourism of the local government(杨敏,纪爱梅,2003:34) in Chinese tourism text. So, the two texts are also distinct in the amount of information.
Ⅲ. Some Suggestions about Translation of Tourism Texts from Chinese to English
There is no doubt that people with different languages and cultural backgrounds tend to think in different patterns. Thus, the way in which a language uses at each level varies from one language to another. However, to make the communication smooth and effective, and to achieve the purpose of translation or translating from Chinese to English ones, adjustment should be made in translation.
As for the translation from Chinese tourism texts to English ones, there should be a shift from flowery wording to simple description at lexical level. It is better to use a main clause with subordinate clause or kinds of participles to convey the information, instead of loose sentences with no clear logic relationships. This can make the translation readable. As for tenor, changing it from the tourist attraction to visitors will create a more intimate atmosphere. In terms of the amount of information, the Chinese translator should add some practical information, such as route, expenses, etc. and objective portray instead of subjective images.
Ⅳ. Limitation of the Paper and a Tentative Conclusion
Analyses of parallel texts have so far mainly focused on genre conventions. Probably because it needs an utmost large corpus, it is difficult to take a more general study of various types and genres. Of course, the texts here are not sufficient to give a macroscopical description about the parallel tourism texts of Chinese and English. Further researches are needed.
According to Neubert, “Textual systems are complex sets of expectations text users have about what texts should be like. With an understanding of these expectations in mind, the translator engages in a textual process of transfer and text production. In the translator’s eyes, the target text is a text induced as a response to another text. The translator facilitates the textuality of the target text by mediating the two textual systems” (1992:24-25). How the same kind of factual material is verbalized in different language is worth of study. Therefore, the translation should follow the conventions of certain target text and should be congruous to the target receiver’s reading habit. Or the acceptability will be low, let alone the achievement of the Skopos.
References
[1]Maker, Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press and Routledge, 2000.
[2]Neubert, Albrecht & Gregory M. Shreve. Translation as Text. The Kent State UP, 1992.
[3]Nord, Christiane. Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.
[4]Snell-Hobney, Mary. Translation Studies: An Integrated Approach. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.
[5]高存、张允. 旅游文本的英译——问卷调查与策略探讨.上海翻译, 2005(3).
[6]胡文仲. 现代实用英语例解. 上海:上海外语教育出版社,1987.
[7]贾文波.汉英时文翻译——政治经济汉译英300句析. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司,1999.
[8]康宁.从语篇功能看汉语旅游语篇的翻译. 中国翻译, 2005(3).
[9]毛凤凡. 从中英文实现诱导功能的差异论旅游资料的英译.华中师范大学研究生学报,2005(6).
[10]魏星.导游翻译语言的修炼.北京:中国旅游出版社,2004.
[11]杨敏、纪爱梅. 英汉旅游篇章的跨文化对比分析.外语与外语教学, 2003(11).
[12]以文. 中国名胜大观. 北京:知识出版社, 2000.
Key words: parallel texts; Chinese and English tourism texts; Skopos
Ⅰ. Skopostheorie and Conventions in Functional Translation
Skopos, a Greek word for ‘purpose’, refers to the purpose of translation. “According to Skopostheorie (the theory that applies the notion of Skopos to translation), the prime principle determining any translation progress is the purpose (Skopos) of the overall translational action.”(Nord, 2001:27)
Whatever the Skopos is, it is the first step to enable the receivers to understand the translation. The translations should make sense in the communicative situation and culture in which it is received.
So, “translators should take a close look at the role conventions play in functionalist approaches to translation.”(Nord, 2001:53) Roughly speaking, in Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained, “conventions will be considered to be implicit or tacit non-binding regulations of behavior, based on common knowledge and the expectation of what others expect you to expect to them (etc.) to do in a certain situation.”(Nord, 2001:53)
Reiss and Vermeer restrict themselves to genre conventions while Nord expands the types of conventions. She takes genre convention, general style conventions, conventions of nonverbal behavior and translation convention into account in functional translation.
With regard to the general style conventions, Nord suggests, “Even when there are similar structures available in the two languages compared, we often find there is a difference in the usage due to different literary traditions and conventions as to what is considered good style.”(2001:55) Therefore, analysis of parallel texts is needed.
Ⅱ. Analysis of Parallel Texts of English and Chinese Tourism Texts
Parallel texts are “two linguistically independent products arising from an identical (or very similar) situation” (Snell-Hornby, 2001:86); that is, they are original texts that, in two cultures, belong to the same text type and genre. Unlike comparative linguistics, which is mostly limited to studying differences in forms, analysis of parallel texts deals with the differences in frequency and distribution on the basis of large corpora of parallel texts.
Here, in this paper, all the examples are just from tourism texts, and the study is just focus on the parallel texts of Chinese and English tourism texts.
2.1 At Lexical Level
The four-character word group is used frequently in Chinese tourism texts. This, especially the idiomatic expressions, with many specific cultural connotations, is the outstanding feature in wording at lexical level. The following example is from a tourist map of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region:
新疆,深居欧亚大陆腹地,位列亚洲大陆中心,有着“三山夹两盆”的地理格局(南有昆仑山,北有阿尔泰山,天山横亘中部,三大山之间有塔里木、准噶尔两大盆地),容纳着世界上许多著名的大山脉、大冰川、大水系、大盆地、大沙漠、大绿洲、大草原……因而形成了新疆大地的千姿百态、风光旖旎、风情万种的自然景观。这里既有高插云天、云蒸雾绕的冰峰雪岭,又有遮天蔽日、松涛阵阵的原始森林和牧草茵茵、繁花似锦的辽阔草原;既有蜿蜒千里、纵横奔腾的名川大河,又有碧波万顷、欧鸟翔集的高山湖泊;既有浩瀚无垠、神秘莫测的沙漠戈壁,又有阡陌相连、瓜果飘香的片片绿洲;既有野生动植物“自由王国”的天然乐园,又有亿万年遗存的光怪陆离的地质奇观。(毛凤凡,2005:23) It seems four-character word groups offer less information, because sometimes the former two characters and the latter two share some similarities in meaning, for example, “遮天” and “蔽日”, “千姿” and“百态”. However, it is by this that the aesthetic perception is aroused and strengthened for Chinese tourists. Four-character word groups can act as the rhetorical device. Hyperbole is a case in point. “高插云天” is an example. In fact, though it is impossible that the peak of the mountain towers into sky, the exaggerated expression produces the image of the extremely lofty mountain.
What’s more, four-character word groups can make the description life-like and vivid. Take“碧波万顷” as an example. “碧” shows the color of the water; “波” depicts a motion of it; “万” is regularly used to convey something in a high degree, e. g. “万里长城”, “万寿无疆” and “万事通”; “顷”, a unit of area, is easy to understand for Chinese, for whom farmland enjoys pride of place. “万顷” indicates the boundless expanse of the lake. Thus, three features (color, state and size) of the lakes come into the readers’ mind by only four characters.
On the contrary, in English tourism texts, the words are more unadorned and plainer. See the introduction to the vales of Usk and Wye:
Many visitors coming to Wales for the first time cross the Seven and Wye river bridges to the castled border town of Chepstow at the mouth of the Wye Valley Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. Chepstow Castle stands impressively on the banks of the river, and the town is encircled by fortified walls with a Gatehouse which now houses the local information center… The Wye Valley road meanders with the river towards Monmouth, but the hilltop road through Trelleck provides panoramic views of the Usk Valley and its rich farmland. The nearby Wolvesnewton folk museum houses a fascinating collection of Victorian and rural crafts… The lower valley of the Usk provides the visitor with a variety of towns and attractions. Abergavenny, a bustling market town, stands at the gateway to the Brecon Beacons National Park, and is an excellent touring center for the Black Mountains and English/Welsh Borderland. Whist the town of Usk itself has a quiet country charm of its own. (胡文仲,1987:192)
It is worth of noting that there is much less adjectives in English tourism texts, and the adjectives used are simpler and common.
2.2 At Syntactic Level
Antithesis structures and parallel structures are very typical element of Chinese tourism texts. As the example above about Xinjiang shows, the two kinds of sentences enhance the sense of beauty. Usually the rhythm of the two structures is balanced, and easy to read out. Thus, these patterns can make an indelible impression to readers. For instance, 崂山,林木苍翠,繁花似锦,到处生机盎然,春天绿芽红花,夏天浓荫蔽日,秋天遍谷金黄,严冬则玉树琼花。(康宁,2005:88) Nevertheless, there is no such typical or a fixed structure with high frequency in English tourism texts.
Another distinction at syntactic level is that Chinese sentences are looser and shorter whereas English ones are longer, with variety of subordinate clauses, prepositional phrases, and/or participles. Sometimes, the relationship between clauses is not direct and clear in Chinese, something like “a combination of phrases about the topic”.(Baker 2000) Usually, there is no or evident marker to indicate the logic between the neighboring clauses. Nevertheless, in English the connection between clauses is relatively close, that is, main clause, subordinate clause, phrase and participle are in a hierarchy of emphasis. And usually the important or new information is expressed in the main clause. Insignificant or given information is provided by subordinate clauses or phrases. Compare the two cases:
福建沿海,水清岩秀,树压礁风,欧鸣呼晴,帆樯映日,风光绮丽非凡。福建最南部的东山岛是新开发的旅游胜地,岛上最奇的是一块久以闻名的风动石。石高约3米多,宽约1米多,重约40吨。上小下大, 底部呈圆弧状,立于一块石盘上,两石相接处仅几寸,狂风吹过,摇晃不定,但从不滚倒。举足蹬之,摇摇欲坠,被称为“天下第一奇石”。(以文,2000:264)
In the first sentence, there is no clear relations among the clauses, but all of them are about the topic—the coastal scenery in Fujian. And though “举足蹬之” is a supposition of “摇摇欲坠”, “if” and “then” do not appear in written form.
No visit to any part of Wales is complete without some time spent in its capital city. A thriving modern center, Cardiff has excellent shopping facilities in its arcades, in the very attractive St. David’s Center, and Queen Street, the main thoroughfare, which is pleasantly pedestrianised.(胡文仲,1987:192-93)
Take the second sentence for example. It is long but the primary information is presented in the main clause “Cardiff has excellent shopping facilities”. “A thriving modern center” is in apposition to Cardiff; “in its arcades, in the very attractive St. David’s Center, and Queen Street” talks about the position of the shopping facilities;“the main thoroughfare, which is pleasantly pedestrianised” is a modifier of the Queen Street. Compared with “Cardiff has excellent shopping facilities” all of these are secondary. This is quite different from the Chinese texts.
2.3.At Textual Level
2.3.1Tenor
Here tenor refers to the relationship between participants involved in the exchange of meaning in the tourism text.
Chinese tourism texts are “tourist attraction-oriented”. The texts pay more attention to the description of the tourist attractions, showing “what tourist attraction is there.” By comparison, English ones are “tourist-oriented”. The texts are persuasive and the focus is on “what visitors can do there.”(毛凤凡,2005:24)
One marker of the distinction is the use of “you/visitor(s)/tourist(s)”. In English tourism texts, the “you/visitor(s)/tourist(s)” enjoys a much higher rate of recurrence than in Chinese counterparts. Such as the example below:
You have made it to the “City by the Bay”. Congratulations, and get ready to have a blast! But where to go, what to do, what to see? These questions can be overwhelming but take heart:
A good way to get a feel of “The City”, is to jump on a Cable Car… Then, if you have a bit savvy, jump on a Cable Car when one is stopped at a Powell Street intersection. You will find that the city is smaller but more wondrous than you might have imagined.
But beware, most people who visit San Francisco for the first time, never want to return home.(高存, 张允,2005:24)
In this text about San Francisco, totally eight sentences, the “you” appears four times. It seems to be friendly and warm to the readers. While in the following Chinese tourism text:
衡山位于湖南省中部,纵横衡阳、衡山、衡东、湘乡、湘潭、长沙等六县市,地跨八百里,峰立七十二,南起“雁阵惊寒,声断衡阳之浦”的衡阳回雁峰,北抵“停车坐爱枫林晚,霜叶红于二月花”的长沙岳麓山。主峰祝融峰,海拔1290米,在湘中南丘陵中卓尔不群,“一览众山小”。衡山就象一幅湘绣,楚天湘水,一览无余;它又象一卷画轴,浓绚淡染,举世无双;它更象一首诗歌,高叹低吟,回味无穷。(魏星,2004:3)
There is no “you” but a general depiction of the mountain. Readers (potential visitors) are not involved in the introduction.
Therefore, the vocative function is direct and explicit in English tourism texts. In contrast, the Chinese way is indirect and implicit. Flowery languages, idiomatic expressions with associative meanings, quotations of famous or authoritative persons, and citation of ancient poems usually fulfill the same function.
2.3.2 Theme
English is subject-prominent while Chinese is topic-prominent. Generally speaking, in English the theme is the subject of the sentence. However, “a Chinese-style topic may or may not be the theme. If initial position is reserved for theme and if topic always occurs in initial position, then the theme and topic presumably the same thing. Topic is something like‘This is my starting point; this is what I am talking about.’”(Baker, 2000:142-43)
In the introduction to Exeter below, the themes of every sentence or clause are the subjects in it.
Exeter is an important commercial center for the South West, and successfully combines the advantages of a modern city with the charm of one with a long and colorful history. Aspects of this history are easily seen in the medieval Cathedral, the Guildhall and the Quay, which is now a popular waterfront venue. Exeter has a population of around 100,000 and has all the shops and cultural and recreational facilities you would expect to find in a thriving university town. Some of the best countryside in Britain is very close to Exeter. The Dartmoor National Park is to the west, and Exmoor, which also has spectacular scenery, is to the north. The coastal town of Exmouth, with its sandy beaches, is about nine miles away. (康宁,2005:86)
Whereas, in the Chinese text, 巫峡两岸,群山相拥,云遮雾绕,奇峰异岭隐没其间,宛如仙境。景色最妙的要数巫山十二峰,而尤以神女峰独具神韵。巡游于此若漫步于大自然的艺术画廊,美不胜收。(贾文波,1999:77)the initiating point is Wu Gorge and all the following are about it. But it is not necessary for Wu Gorge to be the subjects of every clause. For example, the subject of “相拥” is “群山”, of “遮” is “云” and of “绕” is “雾” respectively.
2.3.3 The Amount of Information
Generally speaking, the English tourism texts offer more practical and objective information. They include the transportation, accommodation, expenses and route(胡文仲,1987:191-92), even the shortcoming of the scenic spot(杨敏,纪爱梅,2003:33). Chinese ones contain no such information. But besides florid delineation of tourist sites, there are introduction to the social status of the tourism attractions, detailed historical outline, sometimes even the achievement in tourism of the local government(杨敏,纪爱梅,2003:34) in Chinese tourism text. So, the two texts are also distinct in the amount of information.
Ⅲ. Some Suggestions about Translation of Tourism Texts from Chinese to English
There is no doubt that people with different languages and cultural backgrounds tend to think in different patterns. Thus, the way in which a language uses at each level varies from one language to another. However, to make the communication smooth and effective, and to achieve the purpose of translation or translating from Chinese to English ones, adjustment should be made in translation.
As for the translation from Chinese tourism texts to English ones, there should be a shift from flowery wording to simple description at lexical level. It is better to use a main clause with subordinate clause or kinds of participles to convey the information, instead of loose sentences with no clear logic relationships. This can make the translation readable. As for tenor, changing it from the tourist attraction to visitors will create a more intimate atmosphere. In terms of the amount of information, the Chinese translator should add some practical information, such as route, expenses, etc. and objective portray instead of subjective images.
Ⅳ. Limitation of the Paper and a Tentative Conclusion
Analyses of parallel texts have so far mainly focused on genre conventions. Probably because it needs an utmost large corpus, it is difficult to take a more general study of various types and genres. Of course, the texts here are not sufficient to give a macroscopical description about the parallel tourism texts of Chinese and English. Further researches are needed.
According to Neubert, “Textual systems are complex sets of expectations text users have about what texts should be like. With an understanding of these expectations in mind, the translator engages in a textual process of transfer and text production. In the translator’s eyes, the target text is a text induced as a response to another text. The translator facilitates the textuality of the target text by mediating the two textual systems” (1992:24-25). How the same kind of factual material is verbalized in different language is worth of study. Therefore, the translation should follow the conventions of certain target text and should be congruous to the target receiver’s reading habit. Or the acceptability will be low, let alone the achievement of the Skopos.
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