（一）鸦片战争前，清王朝在对外关系上推行闭关政策。所谓闭关政策，就是采用各种措施限制中外通商，把对外贸易额尽可能降低到最低限度，实行对外贸易国家管制的非自由贸易政策。它的具体内容有以下几个方面：第一，减少通商口岸。清初，由于东南沿海有郑成功领导下的抗清武 (A) before the Opium War, the Qing Dynasty in the implementation of the policy of foreign relations closed. The so-called retreat policy is to adopt various measures to restrict the trade between China and foreign countries, to minimize the volume of foreign trade and to exercise non-free trade policies under the control of foreign trade countries. Its specific content has the following aspects: First, reduce trade ports. At the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, there were anti-Qing arms under the leadership of Zheng Chenggong on the southeast coast