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【Abstract】Functionalism advanced in Germany moves translation from a static linguistic phenomenon to being considered as an act of intercultural communication. To a certain extent， it helps to solve the lasting dilemmas of literal vs. free translation， and dynamic vs. formal equivalence in translation studies. This paper aims to briefly introduce the key theories， rules and models that have a great impact on later generations of translator.
【Key words】functionalism； skopos theory； function plus loyalty
【作者簡介】冉爱华（1983- ），女，四川成都人，四川城市职业学院，讲师，硕士，研究方向：英语翻译理论与实践、英语教学。
1. Introduction
The 1970s and 1980s saw the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative approach to the analysis of translation. Functionalism is a broad term consisting of a series of concepts， theories and models advanced by different theorists. To elaborate each of them is not only arduous but pointless； therefore， in the paper， only the key theories， rules and models that are conductive to later generations will be discussed.
2. Hans J. Vermeer’s Skopos Theory and Its Extension
2.1 The Initiator of the Functionalist Approach
Before expounding Vermeer’s Skopos theory， it is necessary to mention the initiator of the functionalist approach—Katharina Reiss. In the book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism published in 1971， Reiss incorporates a functional concept into her translation criticism. （Nord， 2001： 9） Although still within equivalence-based theory， Reiss realizes， in her translating practice from Spanish to Germany， that “there were situations where equivalence is impossible and， in some cases， not even desired”. （Nord， 2001：9） One situation is when the purpose or function of the target text differs from that of the original， for instance， a prose text is adapted for the stage， or Shakespeare’s plays are rendered for English classes. Reiss’s concern with the function of the target text ushers in a brand-new theory—the functional approach to translation studies in Germany.
2.2 The Skopos Theory
Different from his teacher Reiss， Hans J. Vermeer points out from the outset that equivalence-based linguistic theory can’t explain the complex process of translation， and much effort will be needed to bridge the gap between theory and practice. Vermeer states his general position as follows： “Linguistics alone won’t help us. First， because translating is not merely and not even primarily a linguistic process. Secondly， because linguistics has not yet formulated the right questions to tackle our problems. So let’s look somewhere else.” （Nord， 2001：19） ‘Somewhere else’ refers to the theory of action， which provides the foundation for his general theory of translation， that is， Skopos theory. Vermeer makes a detailed explanation of this theory in the book collaborated with his instructor Reiss， Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation. Skopos is the Greek word for ‘aim’ and ‘purpose’. Influenced by action theory and communication theory， Vermeer interprets translation to be a sort of human action， to be more specific， an intentional and purposeful interaction that takes place between people belonging to different cultures. In this sense， translation is not a one-to-one transfer between languages， but a complicated process involving relevant participants， such as the sender of the source text， the receiver of the target text， the translator and the initiator or commissioner of the activity. Of all those participants， the most decisive one is the addressee， because it is the addressee who determines the purpose of a translation. In a word， Skopos theory focuses on the purpose of the translation， and holds that the purpose or Skopos decides on the translation tactics and strategies to be used so that a functionally adequate version can be produced for the addressees.
2.3 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory
According to Skopos theory， there are three basic rules that a translator should follow in the translation process： the skopos rule， the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. A detailed account of the rules will be presented in this part.
The core of the skopos rule is that the skopos or purpose of the target text governs the way in which the original text is translated， in another word， “the end justifies the means” （Reiss and Vermeer， 1984： 101）. The skopos rule makes it possible that the same text is rendered differently according to the skopos and the translation brief delivered to the translator.
The coherence reads that “the TT must be interpretable as coherent with the TT receiver’s situation” （Reiss and Vermeer， 1984： 113）. To be more concrete， the target text should be translated in such a way that it is suitable to the target-culture audiences， or it should make sense in the social and cultural context in which it is received. The coherence rule is also known as intratexual coherence.
The fidelity rule implies that there is supposed to be coherence between the target text and the source text. Since certain information is transferred from the source text to the target text， they are expected to bear some kind of relationship with each other. Vermeer calls this relationship ‘intertextual coherence”， which is also referred to as the fidelity rule. 3. Justa Holz-Manttari’s Translational Action Model
Drawing on communication theory and action theory， Justa Holz-Manttari puts forward his translational action model. This model attaches importance to the actional facets of the translation procedure. The model is the great contribution Holz-Manttari makes to the development of functionalism， because “it places translation within its sociocultural context， exploring the interplay between the translator and the initiating institution.” （ Munday， 2010： 78） Like Skopos theory， translational action model aims to generate a translation which is functionally communicative for the target-culture audience. In addition， Holz-Manttari holds the view that translators are experts in translational action and their role is to make sure that communication takes place satisfactorily. Holz-Manttari’s emphasizing the role of translators as experts in translational action is another noticeable point of this model.
4. “Function plus Loyalty” Advanced by Christiane Nord
Functionalism has suffered criticism because it considers the source text as a mere ‘offer of information’ or the translator’s ‘raw material’， and advocates that since the target text is the only thing that matters， there is no need for the translator to take the author and other source text factors into consideration.
Confronted with this criticism， Christiane Nord comes up with a function plus loyalty model. Function refers to “the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation.” Loyalty refers to “the interpersonal relationship between the translator， the source-text sender， the target-text addresses and the initiator.” （Nord， 2001：126） It is the combination of the two principles that forms Nord’s version of the functionalist approach. Since the ‘loyalty principle’ is what Nord differs from her predecessors， it is necessary to elucidate it. First of all， loyalty should not be mixed with fidelity or faithfulness， the equivalence-based translation concepts that usually refer to a relationship holding between the source and the target text. Instead， it is the responsibility a translator has towards the participants in translational action. Loyalty commits the translator to both the source and target sides. As for the target side， loyalty means that the translator must take the addressee’s expectation into account and there is a moral responsibility not to deceive them； as for the source side， it means that the translator should respect the original author’s communicative intention. The loyalty principle takes account of the interests of such players as initiators， target receivers and original authors. 5. Conclusion
The functional theory advanced in Germany moves translation from a linguistic phenomenon to being viewed as a communicative and purposeful human action. Reiss， as the initiator of functionalism， links language function， text type and translation methods. Her approach is later incorporated into Vermeer’s Skopos theory， which holds that the purpose or Skopos of a target text determines the translation methods and strategies to be employed. The Skopos theory is part of the translational action model proposed by Holz-Mantarri， who attaches importance to the players and conditions of the translation process. In this model， translators are considered as experts， and their role is to make sure that communication takes place satisfactorily. Nord emphasizes the importance of source text analysis. Besides， the function plus loyalty model postulates that translators should take responsibility for both the source-text sender and the target-source recipient. Although there are disputes among functionalism theorists， they all emphasize the function of texts and view translation as a purpose-driven and reader-oriented human interaction. Their findings are conductive to translation studies.
References：
[1]Munday，Jeremy.Introducing Translation Studies：Theories and Application[M].Shanghai：Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press，2010.
[2]Nord，Christiane.Translating as a Purposeful Activity：Functionalist Approaches Explained[M].Shanghai：Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press，2001.
[3]Reiss，Katharina
【Key words】functionalism； skopos theory； function plus loyalty
【作者簡介】冉爱华（1983- ），女，四川成都人，四川城市职业学院，讲师，硕士，研究方向：英语翻译理论与实践、英语教学。
1. Introduction
The 1970s and 1980s saw the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative approach to the analysis of translation. Functionalism is a broad term consisting of a series of concepts， theories and models advanced by different theorists. To elaborate each of them is not only arduous but pointless； therefore， in the paper， only the key theories， rules and models that are conductive to later generations will be discussed.
2. Hans J. Vermeer’s Skopos Theory and Its Extension
2.1 The Initiator of the Functionalist Approach
Before expounding Vermeer’s Skopos theory， it is necessary to mention the initiator of the functionalist approach—Katharina Reiss. In the book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism published in 1971， Reiss incorporates a functional concept into her translation criticism. （Nord， 2001： 9） Although still within equivalence-based theory， Reiss realizes， in her translating practice from Spanish to Germany， that “there were situations where equivalence is impossible and， in some cases， not even desired”. （Nord， 2001：9） One situation is when the purpose or function of the target text differs from that of the original， for instance， a prose text is adapted for the stage， or Shakespeare’s plays are rendered for English classes. Reiss’s concern with the function of the target text ushers in a brand-new theory—the functional approach to translation studies in Germany.
2.2 The Skopos Theory
Different from his teacher Reiss， Hans J. Vermeer points out from the outset that equivalence-based linguistic theory can’t explain the complex process of translation， and much effort will be needed to bridge the gap between theory and practice. Vermeer states his general position as follows： “Linguistics alone won’t help us. First， because translating is not merely and not even primarily a linguistic process. Secondly， because linguistics has not yet formulated the right questions to tackle our problems. So let’s look somewhere else.” （Nord， 2001：19） ‘Somewhere else’ refers to the theory of action， which provides the foundation for his general theory of translation， that is， Skopos theory. Vermeer makes a detailed explanation of this theory in the book collaborated with his instructor Reiss， Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation. Skopos is the Greek word for ‘aim’ and ‘purpose’. Influenced by action theory and communication theory， Vermeer interprets translation to be a sort of human action， to be more specific， an intentional and purposeful interaction that takes place between people belonging to different cultures. In this sense， translation is not a one-to-one transfer between languages， but a complicated process involving relevant participants， such as the sender of the source text， the receiver of the target text， the translator and the initiator or commissioner of the activity. Of all those participants， the most decisive one is the addressee， because it is the addressee who determines the purpose of a translation. In a word， Skopos theory focuses on the purpose of the translation， and holds that the purpose or Skopos decides on the translation tactics and strategies to be used so that a functionally adequate version can be produced for the addressees.
2.3 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory
According to Skopos theory， there are three basic rules that a translator should follow in the translation process： the skopos rule， the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. A detailed account of the rules will be presented in this part.
The core of the skopos rule is that the skopos or purpose of the target text governs the way in which the original text is translated， in another word， “the end justifies the means” （Reiss and Vermeer， 1984： 101）. The skopos rule makes it possible that the same text is rendered differently according to the skopos and the translation brief delivered to the translator.
The coherence reads that “the TT must be interpretable as coherent with the TT receiver’s situation” （Reiss and Vermeer， 1984： 113）. To be more concrete， the target text should be translated in such a way that it is suitable to the target-culture audiences， or it should make sense in the social and cultural context in which it is received. The coherence rule is also known as intratexual coherence.
The fidelity rule implies that there is supposed to be coherence between the target text and the source text. Since certain information is transferred from the source text to the target text， they are expected to bear some kind of relationship with each other. Vermeer calls this relationship ‘intertextual coherence”， which is also referred to as the fidelity rule. 3. Justa Holz-Manttari’s Translational Action Model
Drawing on communication theory and action theory， Justa Holz-Manttari puts forward his translational action model. This model attaches importance to the actional facets of the translation procedure. The model is the great contribution Holz-Manttari makes to the development of functionalism， because “it places translation within its sociocultural context， exploring the interplay between the translator and the initiating institution.” （ Munday， 2010： 78） Like Skopos theory， translational action model aims to generate a translation which is functionally communicative for the target-culture audience. In addition， Holz-Manttari holds the view that translators are experts in translational action and their role is to make sure that communication takes place satisfactorily. Holz-Manttari’s emphasizing the role of translators as experts in translational action is another noticeable point of this model.
4. “Function plus Loyalty” Advanced by Christiane Nord
Functionalism has suffered criticism because it considers the source text as a mere ‘offer of information’ or the translator’s ‘raw material’， and advocates that since the target text is the only thing that matters， there is no need for the translator to take the author and other source text factors into consideration.
Confronted with this criticism， Christiane Nord comes up with a function plus loyalty model. Function refers to “the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation.” Loyalty refers to “the interpersonal relationship between the translator， the source-text sender， the target-text addresses and the initiator.” （Nord， 2001：126） It is the combination of the two principles that forms Nord’s version of the functionalist approach. Since the ‘loyalty principle’ is what Nord differs from her predecessors， it is necessary to elucidate it. First of all， loyalty should not be mixed with fidelity or faithfulness， the equivalence-based translation concepts that usually refer to a relationship holding between the source and the target text. Instead， it is the responsibility a translator has towards the participants in translational action. Loyalty commits the translator to both the source and target sides. As for the target side， loyalty means that the translator must take the addressee’s expectation into account and there is a moral responsibility not to deceive them； as for the source side， it means that the translator should respect the original author’s communicative intention. The loyalty principle takes account of the interests of such players as initiators， target receivers and original authors. 5. Conclusion
The functional theory advanced in Germany moves translation from a linguistic phenomenon to being viewed as a communicative and purposeful human action. Reiss， as the initiator of functionalism， links language function， text type and translation methods. Her approach is later incorporated into Vermeer’s Skopos theory， which holds that the purpose or Skopos of a target text determines the translation methods and strategies to be employed. The Skopos theory is part of the translational action model proposed by Holz-Mantarri， who attaches importance to the players and conditions of the translation process. In this model， translators are considered as experts， and their role is to make sure that communication takes place satisfactorily. Nord emphasizes the importance of source text analysis. Besides， the function plus loyalty model postulates that translators should take responsibility for both the source-text sender and the target-source recipient. Although there are disputes among functionalism theorists， they all emphasize the function of texts and view translation as a purpose-driven and reader-oriented human interaction. Their findings are conductive to translation studies.
References：
[1]Munday，Jeremy.Introducing Translation Studies：Theories and Application[M].Shanghai：Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press，2010.
[2]Nord，Christiane.Translating as a Purposeful Activity：Functionalist Approaches Explained[M].Shanghai：Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press，2001.
[3]Reiss，Katharina