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Abstract： The Complete Collection of the Four Books embodies the system of interpretations of Confucian classics established and passed down by Zhu Xi and his disciples and by Confucian scholars in the Yuan dynasty. Huang Gan was the leading figure amongst Zhu’s disciples. His work is quoted throughout The Complete Collection of the Four Books to make supplementations. More important， for correct interpretations， the book demonstrated Zhu’s thoughts through his doctrines to restore his authentic ideas while quoting from his disciples to dig Zhu’s thought out of his discussions with them. That was the major thread running through the interpretations of the Four Books in The Complete Collection of the Four Books. An investigation into Huang Gan’s studies can help to reveal what was achieved by Zhu Xi’s disciples’ interpretations of the Four Books and what was passed down and what was lost in studies of the Four Books by Confucian scholars in the Ming dynasty. It can also help us to better understand the academic development of those classics.
Keywords： Zhu Xi， Huang Gan， Zhu Xi’s disciples， Confucian orthodoxy， The Complete Collection of the Four Books
In the year 1414， Emperor Chengzu of the Ming dynasty （r. 1402–1424） had Hu Guang 胡廣 （1370–1418） along with other scholars compile The Complete Collection of the Four Books [四书大全]， which established the Four Book-based official educational system modelled on Zhu Xi’s 朱熹 （1130–1200） doctrines. From then on， the Four Books became the basis of Ming Confucian studies， and Zhu Xi’s doctrines became the core thought of that period.
Zhu Xi’s disciples played a leading role in the formation of his ideas. Japanese scholar Ichiki Tsuyuhiko， holds that first-generation disciples of Zhu Xi kept his materials during the official prohibition of Confucian classics and were the ones that passed on his doctrines. Later they and their disciples improved the social position of Zhu Xi’s doctrines after they became officials and the next two generations of disciples gradually expanded their influence on different regions and social aspects with these doctrines， thus forming “the group of Zhu Xi’s disciples.” Zhu Xi expressed his thought in different ways at different stages， and he had so many disciples who had different interpretations of his thought， which is what caused the complexity and ambiguity in later generations’ understanding of them. In The Complete Collection of the Four Books compiled in the Ming dynasty， some supplementations were made and Zhu Xi’s thought was demonstrated through his doctrines， so that his authentic ideas could be restored. The book tried to extract Zhu’s thought out of his discussions with his disciples and establish a system covering the interpretations on the Four Books by the thinker and his disciples， among whom Huang Gan 黄榦 （1152–1221， alias Zhiqing 直卿 and Mianzhai 勉斋） was the most important figure. Huang Gan， one of Zhu’s disciples and his son-in-law， defended and spread Zhu’s doctrines. He was the leading figure in the group of Zhu Xi’s disciples. There are 165 quotations from him made in The Complete Collection of the Four Books， including 2 on the Great Learning， 3 on the Doctrine of the Mean， 12 on the Mencius， and 148 on the Analects. His interpretations of the Four Books were key references for the study of the group of Zhu Xi’s disciples and Zhu Xi’s ideas， helping us to know what was lost in the studies of the classics by Confucian scholars in the Ming dynasty and how studies on the Four-Book gradually developed. This paper will analyze Huang Gan’s studies of Zhu Xi’s thought.
Zhu Xi and Huang Gan [Refer to page 45 for Chinese. Similarly hereinafter]
Huang Gan was a bright child. He began his learning in 1175 under the instruction of Liu Qingzhi 劉清之 （1134–1190）， and thanks to Liu’s introduction he became Zhu Xi’s disciple in the following year. According to “A Chronicle of Huang Gan’s Life” [勉斋先生黄文肃公年谱]， he was a diligent， courageous， and ambitious man of faith. Whilst studying under Zhu， he went to Jinhua and stayed there for a short period of time under the instruction of Lü Zuqian 吕祖谦 （1137–1181）. Hence， he acquired the key ideas of both masters， which might have been an intentional arrangement by Zhu Xi. After Zhang Shi 张栻 （1133–1180） passed away， Zhu Xi depended on Huang Gan to pass down his ideas， marrying his second daughter to Huang and having Huang teach at the Ziyang Hall. It was 1182 then， when Zhu Xi’s Commentaries and Interpretations on the Four Books [四书章句集注] was printed in Wuzhou， and hence the Great Learning， the Doctrine of the Mean， the Analects， and the Mencius started to be called the Four Books in studies of Confucian classics. Subsequently， to extol Zhu Xi’s Commentaries and Interpretations on the Four Books became Huang Gan’s lifelong academic pursuit.
In the preface to the Commentaries and Interpretations on the Doctrine of the Mean [中庸章句]， Zhu Xi began to mention the continuity of Confucian orthodoxy to show that learning was above governance， and hence to form his primary ideas. Huang Gan combined Confucian orthodoxy and Neo-Confucianism in his studies， taking the former as Zhu Xi’s representative academic achievement. He integrated Zhu Xi， the Four Books， and Confucian orthodoxy into one concept. That was the cause of later generations’ understanding Confucianism and worshipping Zhu Xi’s doctrines. In other words， they admired the Four Books because of Confucian orthodoxy， because of which they worshipped Zhu Xi， because of whom they carried on the Confucian orthodoxy. Huang Gan held that “one should take jing 敬 （respect） as the root， study li 理 （principle） to acquire zhi 知 （knowledge）， discipline himself or herself to shake off his or her desires， and be cheng 誠 （honest， or acting with integrity） to show his or her nature.” He took those four self-disciplinary requirements as the direction of self-cultivation and wrote the article “On Respect” [敬说]， in which he took respect as the principle of morality. His interpretations covered everything from Neo-Confucian metaphysics to Confucian ethics， from discussions about principles to persistent morality cultivation. His method was simple and accessible to scholars since it could be practiced physically and mentally. He regarded respect as a virtue and the most fundamental virtue of Confucianism to make it more rigorous， so that it would not be something abstract but something practical for applying to self-conduct.
Notably， Huang Gan spent years finishing “A Brief Biography of Zhu Xi” [朝奉大夫文华阁待制赠宝谟阁直学士通议大夫谥文朱先生行状]， in which he gave an account and a final historical conclusion to the tale of Zhu Xi’s life in response to the political and social changes by carrying on Confucian orthodoxy of the Cheng brothers， namely， Cheng Yi 程颢 （1032–1085） and Cheng Hao 程颐 （1033–1107）. He set out to prove that Zhu’s doctrines were a combination of studies of both the object and its function， which， though not his own orthodoxy， were interpretations of classics that could easily be passed down to later generations， and he set out to do this invoking three aspects， namely： governance， studies， and the Confucian orthodoxy. Thus， Zhu Xi’s ideas could be taken as the continuity of Confucian orthodoxy academically， as guidelines for social governance and as principles for generations of common peoples’ behavior. Investigations in recent times into the Confucianism of Ming dynasty scholars have tended to refer to Zhu Xi， which may be attributed to the results of Huang Gan’s studies.
Huang Gan， a strict and resolute scholar， made great academic accomplishments and took on spreading Zhu Xi’s doctrines as his personal mission， shifting the topics of the time from discussions about Neo-Confucian schools to exploring the philosophy of principle， which contributed to the Four Books’ becoming the foundation of later scholars’ learning and focus and in turn to the compilation of The Complete Collection of the Four Books， a comprehensive work of interpretations of the four classics. Clarifying the Philosophy of Principle through Textual Research [50]
The Complete Collection of the Four Books was an achievement of Confucian studies in the Song （960–1279） and Yuan （1206–1368） dynasties， represented by three groups of scholars. The first was Zhu Xi’s disciples and their disciples， who mainly sorted and verified Zhu’s commentaries and interpretations; the second was the Shuangfeng and Beishan schools， who individually engaged in interpreting the Four Books each with their own conflicting viewpoints; and the third was Confucian scholars from Xin’an， who called for following the local masters of Confucianism and for sorting and editing Zhu Xi’s works. As for the first group， Huang Gan’s thought was the key part of clarifying the philosophy of principle.
Huang Gan took the Four Books as the focus of Zhu Xi’s studies. With reference to the saying that “one can be persistent only when he knows what he should attain” to be found in the Great Learning， The Complete Collection of the Four Books quotes from Huang Gan’s writings as follows： “The principle of the Great Learning consists in promoting virtue and enlightening the people， which requires one to be perfect， which in turn requires him or her to be persistent in attaining their goal.” Zhu Xi emphasized that the attainment of the goal was where perfection lay， so he put stress on the goal， while Huang Gan associated the attainment of the goal with the context， and stressed that to know what to attain was the direction of enlightening the people and leading them to perfection. “Attaining the goal without hesitation” shows that the latter stressed persistence more than the former. To pursue the ultimate goal， Huang attached more importance to moral cultivation.
Discovering the tenets of the classics was the keystone of Huang’s interpretation of the Four Books. Zhu held that the study of the Doctrine of the Mean should start and end with commentaries and interpretations （zhangju 章句）. Huang explained，
The Doctrine of the Mean has its main idea in the Commentaries and Interpretations on the Doctrine of the Mean and Questions and Answers on the Doctrine of the Mean [中庸或問]， scholars are all familiar with the text and content. It has a clear theme and its beginning corresponds with its ending. This work by Zisi 子思 （483–402 BCE） is different from the Analects and the Mencius in its chapters and ideas. If we only analyze it chapter by chapter or sentence by sentence， we cannot grasp the ideas in it， nor can we know why Zisi wrote it. The Cheng brothers hold that the book begins with a principle， then illustrates everything and ends with the principle again， while Zhu Xi holds that integrity is the thread running through the book to instruct others. Here， Huang made explicit the academic contributions made by Zhu Xi and the main idea of the Doctrine of the Mean， which requires， according to Huang， to read it specifically as a whole and as separate chapters， so that the reader can grasp its threads and thus fully understand it.
To illustrate the philosophy of principle on the basis of the original text is the academic focus of Huang Gan， representing the orientation of the text. His key achievement in interpreting the Four Books lies in conveying Zhu Xi’s message through close and detailed reading of the original text. Huang promoted the ideas of Zhu Xi and the Four Books， so that Huang Gan’s interpretations remained within the framework of Zhu’s studies， while moderately illustrating the philosophy of principle.
As for the original quote， “to learn and then have occasion to practice what you have learned” in Analects 1：1， He Yan 何晏 （190–249） explained that “to learn” means to read （誦习） and recite （业） in his A Collection of Interpretations of the Analects [论语集解]. In Zhu Xi’s Commentaries and Interpretations on the Analects [论语集注]， Zhu Xi states， “to learn means to imitate，” according to which， imitation is an aspect of learning， which can be expanded into knowledge and practice. Confucius instructed on the Book of Songs， the Book of History， rites （li 礼）， and music， which must have included the improvement of knowledge and capability. In Zhu Xi’s Questions and Answers on the Analects [论语或问]， knowledge and capability were adopted to illustrate “learning.” According to Huang Gan， “imitation” covers these two aspects， and it can integrate the concept to “return to xing 性 （nature）” from Neo-Confucianism into it. “Imitation” indicates emulating the sages， with the ultimate goal of “grasping all the principles under the Heaven” and “returning to the good in nature，” so it is an expansion of the understanding of past interpretations but also a representation of Zhu Xi’s general ideas， in addition to its revelation of the main ideas of Neo-Confucianism.
As for Analects 1：2， Zhu gave the annotation as follows： “Ren 仁 （benevolence） is the principle for love and the virtue of the mind.” Huang gave a more detailed illustration of it in four aspects， namely， ren， yi 义 （righteousness）， li 礼， and zhi 智 （wisdom）. According to him， ren covers yi， li， and zhi， and it is paralleled with the latter three. Ren has its broad and narrow sense， so it must be judged in accordance with the context. His illustration of the philosophy of principle according to the text is a confirmation of Zhu’ s idea that ren is the virtue of the mind. As for Analects 3：3， Zhu Xi quoted from You Zuo 游酢 （1053–1123）： “One who is not benevolent will see his or her mind perish.” Huang Gan annotated， “Ren is the virtue of the mind. A mind which is filled with virtue is called a mind with ren. What You said about a perishing mind is the closest interpretation of ren.” By saying so， he emphasized that people should not be without ren and that a mind without ren will perish. When saying that ren is an inherent virtue of the mind is， Zhu was referring to the meaning of ren， while Huang expanded the meaning by indicating that the full virtue of a mind is realized as ren. Therefore， Huang attached importance to ren not from the perspective of perception， principle， or vital force （qi 氣）， but from its being a virtue of the mind.
Zhu Xi’s Commentaries and Interpretations on the Four Books can be taken as the representation of his lifelong studies containing prudent illustrations and wonderful thinking. But because of his stylistic layout and arrangement， we have to read carefully and ponder to grasp the meaning. Huang Gan passed on Zhu Xi’s thought as illustrated in “On Ren” [仁说] to manifest the heavenly principles， so his illustrations of ren are of more significance in conveying the meaning of ren. He proved that his ideas were in keeping with Zhu Xi’s with illustrations in details employed in a different way. His illustration of the philosophy of principle on the basis of text showed the direction of Zhu’s thought.
Pursuing Confucian Orthodoxy by Morality Cultivation [54]
In-depth repeated study of what Confucius said and consideration of the way of morality cultivation continued after Zhu Xi.
As for Analects 7：20， Zhu quoted from Yin Tun 尹焞 （1071–1142）， “Confucius became a sage because of his knowledge. Every time he mentioned love for learning， he was not only encouraging others.” Huang Gan noted，
The sage knew the philosophy of principle in his life， but he engaged in an endless pursuit of dao 道 （the Way）， so he was never contented， but devoted to learning and thinking. He always emulated those virtuous men in ancient times， so he would not stop learning. That was why he could become a sage.
Therefore， it underlined that love for learning was the most important prerequisite to becoming a sage， reminding later generations to make continuous progress. Huang’s efforts were made not only in defining the annotation and stylistic layout as well as principles of classical texts， but also in his ideas about the content of Confucianism and the value of moral cultivation. Huang also inherited what Zhu Xi had thought about the divisions of doctrines of Confucius and his disciples， among whom Yan Yuan 顏渊 （521–481 BCE） was the leading figure. For the passage， “Duke Ai of Lu asked which disciple of Confucius was keen on learning” in Analects 6：3， Zhu gave the annotation as follows： “Yan Yuan made such achievements by disciplining himself，” and associated that with the parallel passage， “Through self-discipline and ritual propriety observing one becomes benevolent” in Analects 12：1， to prove that Yan was so self-disciplined that he was successful. Huang then interpreted “self-discipline” into habit， reflection， control， and persistence， stating that he who could never take his anger out on others or make the same mistake twice was a man of clear mind. About what was to be learned， Zhu gave the following annotation： “It is said that Confucius was knowledgeable by nature and that his knowledge was not acquired. Today we can only learn what he said from the heart， which is different from what Yan Yuan learned.” Huang pushed Zhu’s idea further， illustrating the way of cultivation recognized by Confucius， for the latter praised Yan as a man of good nature making effort in learning who had such a clear and peaceful mind that he never took his anger out on others or made the same mistake twice.
For the passage “A man of character is this Yan Yuan” in Analects 6：11， what Yan Yuan paid attention to was what Confucian scholars in the Song dynasty were concerned with， and that was the manifestation of the demeanor of sages. “In Commentaries and Interpretations on the Analects， Zhu Xi described Yan Yuan as a man who had knowledge and observed propriety while in Questions and Answers on the Analects， he described him as a man of few desires who followed heavenly principles.” The latter was close to what Confucian scholars in the Northern Song described Yan as， while the former was more closely related to moral cultivation， which was what must be integrated into interpretations. Huang tried to close the gap between the two， holding that “being knowledgeable and observing propriety” were not conceptually conflicting with “following Heavenly principles，” but that their relationship was like that between effort and effect. According to him， knowledge makes one wise and propriety makes one persistent， so he who knows well about the principles can follow both his heart and heavenly principles.
When annotating and interpreting Analects 1：7， Zhu Xi held that both Zixia 子夏 （b. 507 BCE） and Zengzi 曾子 （505–436 BCE） cultivated themselves in the same way since both tried to be honest. Whereas， Huang Gan analyzed the difference between the two by stating， “Zixia paid more attention to practice rather than book learning while Zengzi paid attention to both learning and practice， so the latter made more effort with more persistence， and was able to realize greater achievements.” Here， Huang added what Zhu had not covered and illustrated persistence from the aspect of language and learning， which testifies to his illustration of the philosophy of principle according to the text.
Analects 8：4 was aimed to make requirements for one’s appearance. Whilst Zhu Xi paid attention to the aspects of the external and internal and fundamental and incidental significance， holding that the appearance was the manifestation of the inner being， since one with a righteous heart can observe principles. Therefore， in his opinion， one had to return to cultivation and to the fundamental. As for this opinion， Huang Gan stressed that his instructor had made a deep and clear interpretation of the key idea of Confucianism.
We can define the genealogical map of Confucian doctrines only when we have made clear the key knowledge and methodology of Confucius and his disciples， and the significance of moral cultivation and effort， thus reaching the Way through learning and then orthodoxy through the Way. With regard to Mencius 7B：38， Huang Gan said，
Zengzi and Zisi passed on what Confucius had said， subtle but deeply meaningful， till Mencius wrote it into his work. Afterward， Zhou Dunyi 周敦頤 （1017–1073）， the Cheng brothers， and Zhang Zai 张载 （1020–1077） recovered the lost knowledge of Confucius and then Zhu Xi wrote it into his work. Thanks to master Zhu， the world has been enlightened to the Way of sages since the Zhou dynasty （1046–256 BCE）. According to the Commentaries and Interpretations on the Four Books， in generations later there must be those who can grasp everything. This indicates that there must also be those who cannot.
In Huang’s opinion， Zhu Xi’s achievements in studying the Four Books could be seen as the continuance of the Cheng brothers’ teachings and became recorded as a part of Confucian orthodoxy. Then Confucian orthodoxy became a sign guiding later Confucius scholars， calling on them to carry on studies of Confucian doctrines， which is owed to not only Zhu Xi but also Huang Gan， who praised the former’s contribution to Confucian orthodoxy and deepened the principles contained in the Four Books， hence constructing the panorama of Confucian studies of the Ming dynasty. Conclusion [58]
The Complete Collection of the Four Books mainly drew from Huang Gan’s analysis of Confucian doctrines， because he praised Zhu Xi’s learning and ambition and because Confucian scholars intentionally associated the continuity of Confucian learning with Zhu Xi and his disciples to enhance Zhu’s academic status.
Huang Gan saw how hard Zhu Xi worked in studying the Four Books. He noted that at Analects 3：20， “My teacher stopped at this section when he re-edited his Commentaries and Interpretations in his late years.” As for Analects 19：6， he said， “In the early version of his Commentaries and Interpretations， my teacher interpreted it as ‘if one can focus his mind on his purposes， everything will benefit.’” Things are external while the mind is something internal， so Zhu Xi obviously attached importance to practice. Huang’s first-hand observations can help us to learn about how Zhu Xi’s thought was developed， and his detailed in-depth interpretations enhanced the latter’s academic relationship with Confucian orthodoxy， defining the direction of the group of Zhu Xi’s disciples and laying the foundation for the development of the studies of the Four Books.
According to William Theodore de Bary， “With the Four Books established as the basic curriculum throughout East Asia， there is a shared outlook—or， better， a shared inlook on the human center rather than an outlook on the world at large.” Such an achievement is naturally owed to the effort made by Zhu Xi， but on the other hand， Huang Gan’s contributions should not be overlooked， but should be studied in a deeper manner. The author of the present paper hereby lists some of his contributions as follows：
（1） The quotations made from Huang Gan by The Complete Collection of the Four Books are the key to learning about the group of Zhu Xi’s disciples， and about the post–Zhu development of the Four Books studies.
（2） Huang combined Zhu Xi’s thought， doctrines in the Four Books， and Confucian orthodoxy， forming what was understood as Confucian studies by later generations， and leading to the high status of Zhu Xi’s studies. He devoted his lifelong efforts to promoting his teacher through the Four Books. He held that the latter carried on Confucian orthodoxy. He finally raised the idea that the cultivation of respect within the Confucian genealogy and formed principles on morality， which led to a Confucianism with texts， history， and sentiments.
（3） He developed textual analysis into the philosophical argument of principle， focusing his interpretation on the grasp of the essence of ren. Commentaries and Interpretations on the Four Books manifested Zhu Xi’s lifelong studies， but there were still some details to be completed and perfected. Huang tried to prove， based on different sources， that his teacher’s ideas on the philosophy of principle remained unchanged， which helps us to know better about Zhu’s teachings. （4） He carried on Zhu’s genealogical studies of Confucian disciples， and paid special attention to moral cultivation， thus defining the Way through learning and then orthodoxy through the Way and shifting from Neo-Confucian metaphysics to Confucian ethics， from discussions about principles to holding fast to moral cultivation Therefore， Neo-Confucian analysis tended not to be so obscure as before thanks to his diligence and persistence.
（5） Zhu Xi praised Zhou Dunyi， the Cheng brothers， and Zhang Zai for their recovery of the lost knowledge about Confucianism while Huang held that his teacher， because of his sense of mission and his sentiments， continued the studies of the Yiluo School on the Four Books in the Northern Song so that the Confucian orthodoxy could be continued.
To conclude， The Complete Collection of the Four Books was the foundation of Confucian studies in the Ming dynasty. Huang Gan played a guiding role in integrating some divergences and defining the thread running through the book. What has been discussed in the present paper may not be complete， but hopefully it can arouse more discussions on the topic.
Translated by Peng Ping
Keywords： Zhu Xi， Huang Gan， Zhu Xi’s disciples， Confucian orthodoxy， The Complete Collection of the Four Books
In the year 1414， Emperor Chengzu of the Ming dynasty （r. 1402–1424） had Hu Guang 胡廣 （1370–1418） along with other scholars compile The Complete Collection of the Four Books [四书大全]， which established the Four Book-based official educational system modelled on Zhu Xi’s 朱熹 （1130–1200） doctrines. From then on， the Four Books became the basis of Ming Confucian studies， and Zhu Xi’s doctrines became the core thought of that period.
Zhu Xi’s disciples played a leading role in the formation of his ideas. Japanese scholar Ichiki Tsuyuhiko， holds that first-generation disciples of Zhu Xi kept his materials during the official prohibition of Confucian classics and were the ones that passed on his doctrines. Later they and their disciples improved the social position of Zhu Xi’s doctrines after they became officials and the next two generations of disciples gradually expanded their influence on different regions and social aspects with these doctrines， thus forming “the group of Zhu Xi’s disciples.” Zhu Xi expressed his thought in different ways at different stages， and he had so many disciples who had different interpretations of his thought， which is what caused the complexity and ambiguity in later generations’ understanding of them. In The Complete Collection of the Four Books compiled in the Ming dynasty， some supplementations were made and Zhu Xi’s thought was demonstrated through his doctrines， so that his authentic ideas could be restored. The book tried to extract Zhu’s thought out of his discussions with his disciples and establish a system covering the interpretations on the Four Books by the thinker and his disciples， among whom Huang Gan 黄榦 （1152–1221， alias Zhiqing 直卿 and Mianzhai 勉斋） was the most important figure. Huang Gan， one of Zhu’s disciples and his son-in-law， defended and spread Zhu’s doctrines. He was the leading figure in the group of Zhu Xi’s disciples. There are 165 quotations from him made in The Complete Collection of the Four Books， including 2 on the Great Learning， 3 on the Doctrine of the Mean， 12 on the Mencius， and 148 on the Analects. His interpretations of the Four Books were key references for the study of the group of Zhu Xi’s disciples and Zhu Xi’s ideas， helping us to know what was lost in the studies of the classics by Confucian scholars in the Ming dynasty and how studies on the Four-Book gradually developed. This paper will analyze Huang Gan’s studies of Zhu Xi’s thought.
Zhu Xi and Huang Gan [Refer to page 45 for Chinese. Similarly hereinafter]
Huang Gan was a bright child. He began his learning in 1175 under the instruction of Liu Qingzhi 劉清之 （1134–1190）， and thanks to Liu’s introduction he became Zhu Xi’s disciple in the following year. According to “A Chronicle of Huang Gan’s Life” [勉斋先生黄文肃公年谱]， he was a diligent， courageous， and ambitious man of faith. Whilst studying under Zhu， he went to Jinhua and stayed there for a short period of time under the instruction of Lü Zuqian 吕祖谦 （1137–1181）. Hence， he acquired the key ideas of both masters， which might have been an intentional arrangement by Zhu Xi. After Zhang Shi 张栻 （1133–1180） passed away， Zhu Xi depended on Huang Gan to pass down his ideas， marrying his second daughter to Huang and having Huang teach at the Ziyang Hall. It was 1182 then， when Zhu Xi’s Commentaries and Interpretations on the Four Books [四书章句集注] was printed in Wuzhou， and hence the Great Learning， the Doctrine of the Mean， the Analects， and the Mencius started to be called the Four Books in studies of Confucian classics. Subsequently， to extol Zhu Xi’s Commentaries and Interpretations on the Four Books became Huang Gan’s lifelong academic pursuit.
In the preface to the Commentaries and Interpretations on the Doctrine of the Mean [中庸章句]， Zhu Xi began to mention the continuity of Confucian orthodoxy to show that learning was above governance， and hence to form his primary ideas. Huang Gan combined Confucian orthodoxy and Neo-Confucianism in his studies， taking the former as Zhu Xi’s representative academic achievement. He integrated Zhu Xi， the Four Books， and Confucian orthodoxy into one concept. That was the cause of later generations’ understanding Confucianism and worshipping Zhu Xi’s doctrines. In other words， they admired the Four Books because of Confucian orthodoxy， because of which they worshipped Zhu Xi， because of whom they carried on the Confucian orthodoxy. Huang Gan held that “one should take jing 敬 （respect） as the root， study li 理 （principle） to acquire zhi 知 （knowledge）， discipline himself or herself to shake off his or her desires， and be cheng 誠 （honest， or acting with integrity） to show his or her nature.” He took those four self-disciplinary requirements as the direction of self-cultivation and wrote the article “On Respect” [敬说]， in which he took respect as the principle of morality. His interpretations covered everything from Neo-Confucian metaphysics to Confucian ethics， from discussions about principles to persistent morality cultivation. His method was simple and accessible to scholars since it could be practiced physically and mentally. He regarded respect as a virtue and the most fundamental virtue of Confucianism to make it more rigorous， so that it would not be something abstract but something practical for applying to self-conduct.
Notably， Huang Gan spent years finishing “A Brief Biography of Zhu Xi” [朝奉大夫文华阁待制赠宝谟阁直学士通议大夫谥文朱先生行状]， in which he gave an account and a final historical conclusion to the tale of Zhu Xi’s life in response to the political and social changes by carrying on Confucian orthodoxy of the Cheng brothers， namely， Cheng Yi 程颢 （1032–1085） and Cheng Hao 程颐 （1033–1107）. He set out to prove that Zhu’s doctrines were a combination of studies of both the object and its function， which， though not his own orthodoxy， were interpretations of classics that could easily be passed down to later generations， and he set out to do this invoking three aspects， namely： governance， studies， and the Confucian orthodoxy. Thus， Zhu Xi’s ideas could be taken as the continuity of Confucian orthodoxy academically， as guidelines for social governance and as principles for generations of common peoples’ behavior. Investigations in recent times into the Confucianism of Ming dynasty scholars have tended to refer to Zhu Xi， which may be attributed to the results of Huang Gan’s studies.
Huang Gan， a strict and resolute scholar， made great academic accomplishments and took on spreading Zhu Xi’s doctrines as his personal mission， shifting the topics of the time from discussions about Neo-Confucian schools to exploring the philosophy of principle， which contributed to the Four Books’ becoming the foundation of later scholars’ learning and focus and in turn to the compilation of The Complete Collection of the Four Books， a comprehensive work of interpretations of the four classics. Clarifying the Philosophy of Principle through Textual Research [50]
The Complete Collection of the Four Books was an achievement of Confucian studies in the Song （960–1279） and Yuan （1206–1368） dynasties， represented by three groups of scholars. The first was Zhu Xi’s disciples and their disciples， who mainly sorted and verified Zhu’s commentaries and interpretations; the second was the Shuangfeng and Beishan schools， who individually engaged in interpreting the Four Books each with their own conflicting viewpoints; and the third was Confucian scholars from Xin’an， who called for following the local masters of Confucianism and for sorting and editing Zhu Xi’s works. As for the first group， Huang Gan’s thought was the key part of clarifying the philosophy of principle.
Huang Gan took the Four Books as the focus of Zhu Xi’s studies. With reference to the saying that “one can be persistent only when he knows what he should attain” to be found in the Great Learning， The Complete Collection of the Four Books quotes from Huang Gan’s writings as follows： “The principle of the Great Learning consists in promoting virtue and enlightening the people， which requires one to be perfect， which in turn requires him or her to be persistent in attaining their goal.” Zhu Xi emphasized that the attainment of the goal was where perfection lay， so he put stress on the goal， while Huang Gan associated the attainment of the goal with the context， and stressed that to know what to attain was the direction of enlightening the people and leading them to perfection. “Attaining the goal without hesitation” shows that the latter stressed persistence more than the former. To pursue the ultimate goal， Huang attached more importance to moral cultivation.
Discovering the tenets of the classics was the keystone of Huang’s interpretation of the Four Books. Zhu held that the study of the Doctrine of the Mean should start and end with commentaries and interpretations （zhangju 章句）. Huang explained，
The Doctrine of the Mean has its main idea in the Commentaries and Interpretations on the Doctrine of the Mean and Questions and Answers on the Doctrine of the Mean [中庸或問]， scholars are all familiar with the text and content. It has a clear theme and its beginning corresponds with its ending. This work by Zisi 子思 （483–402 BCE） is different from the Analects and the Mencius in its chapters and ideas. If we only analyze it chapter by chapter or sentence by sentence， we cannot grasp the ideas in it， nor can we know why Zisi wrote it. The Cheng brothers hold that the book begins with a principle， then illustrates everything and ends with the principle again， while Zhu Xi holds that integrity is the thread running through the book to instruct others. Here， Huang made explicit the academic contributions made by Zhu Xi and the main idea of the Doctrine of the Mean， which requires， according to Huang， to read it specifically as a whole and as separate chapters， so that the reader can grasp its threads and thus fully understand it.
To illustrate the philosophy of principle on the basis of the original text is the academic focus of Huang Gan， representing the orientation of the text. His key achievement in interpreting the Four Books lies in conveying Zhu Xi’s message through close and detailed reading of the original text. Huang promoted the ideas of Zhu Xi and the Four Books， so that Huang Gan’s interpretations remained within the framework of Zhu’s studies， while moderately illustrating the philosophy of principle.
As for the original quote， “to learn and then have occasion to practice what you have learned” in Analects 1：1， He Yan 何晏 （190–249） explained that “to learn” means to read （誦习） and recite （业） in his A Collection of Interpretations of the Analects [论语集解]. In Zhu Xi’s Commentaries and Interpretations on the Analects [论语集注]， Zhu Xi states， “to learn means to imitate，” according to which， imitation is an aspect of learning， which can be expanded into knowledge and practice. Confucius instructed on the Book of Songs， the Book of History， rites （li 礼）， and music， which must have included the improvement of knowledge and capability. In Zhu Xi’s Questions and Answers on the Analects [论语或问]， knowledge and capability were adopted to illustrate “learning.” According to Huang Gan， “imitation” covers these two aspects， and it can integrate the concept to “return to xing 性 （nature）” from Neo-Confucianism into it. “Imitation” indicates emulating the sages， with the ultimate goal of “grasping all the principles under the Heaven” and “returning to the good in nature，” so it is an expansion of the understanding of past interpretations but also a representation of Zhu Xi’s general ideas， in addition to its revelation of the main ideas of Neo-Confucianism.
As for Analects 1：2， Zhu gave the annotation as follows： “Ren 仁 （benevolence） is the principle for love and the virtue of the mind.” Huang gave a more detailed illustration of it in four aspects， namely， ren， yi 义 （righteousness）， li 礼， and zhi 智 （wisdom）. According to him， ren covers yi， li， and zhi， and it is paralleled with the latter three. Ren has its broad and narrow sense， so it must be judged in accordance with the context. His illustration of the philosophy of principle according to the text is a confirmation of Zhu’ s idea that ren is the virtue of the mind. As for Analects 3：3， Zhu Xi quoted from You Zuo 游酢 （1053–1123）： “One who is not benevolent will see his or her mind perish.” Huang Gan annotated， “Ren is the virtue of the mind. A mind which is filled with virtue is called a mind with ren. What You said about a perishing mind is the closest interpretation of ren.” By saying so， he emphasized that people should not be without ren and that a mind without ren will perish. When saying that ren is an inherent virtue of the mind is， Zhu was referring to the meaning of ren， while Huang expanded the meaning by indicating that the full virtue of a mind is realized as ren. Therefore， Huang attached importance to ren not from the perspective of perception， principle， or vital force （qi 氣）， but from its being a virtue of the mind.
Zhu Xi’s Commentaries and Interpretations on the Four Books can be taken as the representation of his lifelong studies containing prudent illustrations and wonderful thinking. But because of his stylistic layout and arrangement， we have to read carefully and ponder to grasp the meaning. Huang Gan passed on Zhu Xi’s thought as illustrated in “On Ren” [仁说] to manifest the heavenly principles， so his illustrations of ren are of more significance in conveying the meaning of ren. He proved that his ideas were in keeping with Zhu Xi’s with illustrations in details employed in a different way. His illustration of the philosophy of principle on the basis of text showed the direction of Zhu’s thought.
Pursuing Confucian Orthodoxy by Morality Cultivation [54]
In-depth repeated study of what Confucius said and consideration of the way of morality cultivation continued after Zhu Xi.
As for Analects 7：20， Zhu quoted from Yin Tun 尹焞 （1071–1142）， “Confucius became a sage because of his knowledge. Every time he mentioned love for learning， he was not only encouraging others.” Huang Gan noted，
The sage knew the philosophy of principle in his life， but he engaged in an endless pursuit of dao 道 （the Way）， so he was never contented， but devoted to learning and thinking. He always emulated those virtuous men in ancient times， so he would not stop learning. That was why he could become a sage.
Therefore， it underlined that love for learning was the most important prerequisite to becoming a sage， reminding later generations to make continuous progress. Huang’s efforts were made not only in defining the annotation and stylistic layout as well as principles of classical texts， but also in his ideas about the content of Confucianism and the value of moral cultivation. Huang also inherited what Zhu Xi had thought about the divisions of doctrines of Confucius and his disciples， among whom Yan Yuan 顏渊 （521–481 BCE） was the leading figure. For the passage， “Duke Ai of Lu asked which disciple of Confucius was keen on learning” in Analects 6：3， Zhu gave the annotation as follows： “Yan Yuan made such achievements by disciplining himself，” and associated that with the parallel passage， “Through self-discipline and ritual propriety observing one becomes benevolent” in Analects 12：1， to prove that Yan was so self-disciplined that he was successful. Huang then interpreted “self-discipline” into habit， reflection， control， and persistence， stating that he who could never take his anger out on others or make the same mistake twice was a man of clear mind. About what was to be learned， Zhu gave the following annotation： “It is said that Confucius was knowledgeable by nature and that his knowledge was not acquired. Today we can only learn what he said from the heart， which is different from what Yan Yuan learned.” Huang pushed Zhu’s idea further， illustrating the way of cultivation recognized by Confucius， for the latter praised Yan as a man of good nature making effort in learning who had such a clear and peaceful mind that he never took his anger out on others or made the same mistake twice.
For the passage “A man of character is this Yan Yuan” in Analects 6：11， what Yan Yuan paid attention to was what Confucian scholars in the Song dynasty were concerned with， and that was the manifestation of the demeanor of sages. “In Commentaries and Interpretations on the Analects， Zhu Xi described Yan Yuan as a man who had knowledge and observed propriety while in Questions and Answers on the Analects， he described him as a man of few desires who followed heavenly principles.” The latter was close to what Confucian scholars in the Northern Song described Yan as， while the former was more closely related to moral cultivation， which was what must be integrated into interpretations. Huang tried to close the gap between the two， holding that “being knowledgeable and observing propriety” were not conceptually conflicting with “following Heavenly principles，” but that their relationship was like that between effort and effect. According to him， knowledge makes one wise and propriety makes one persistent， so he who knows well about the principles can follow both his heart and heavenly principles.
When annotating and interpreting Analects 1：7， Zhu Xi held that both Zixia 子夏 （b. 507 BCE） and Zengzi 曾子 （505–436 BCE） cultivated themselves in the same way since both tried to be honest. Whereas， Huang Gan analyzed the difference between the two by stating， “Zixia paid more attention to practice rather than book learning while Zengzi paid attention to both learning and practice， so the latter made more effort with more persistence， and was able to realize greater achievements.” Here， Huang added what Zhu had not covered and illustrated persistence from the aspect of language and learning， which testifies to his illustration of the philosophy of principle according to the text.
Analects 8：4 was aimed to make requirements for one’s appearance. Whilst Zhu Xi paid attention to the aspects of the external and internal and fundamental and incidental significance， holding that the appearance was the manifestation of the inner being， since one with a righteous heart can observe principles. Therefore， in his opinion， one had to return to cultivation and to the fundamental. As for this opinion， Huang Gan stressed that his instructor had made a deep and clear interpretation of the key idea of Confucianism.
We can define the genealogical map of Confucian doctrines only when we have made clear the key knowledge and methodology of Confucius and his disciples， and the significance of moral cultivation and effort， thus reaching the Way through learning and then orthodoxy through the Way. With regard to Mencius 7B：38， Huang Gan said，
Zengzi and Zisi passed on what Confucius had said， subtle but deeply meaningful， till Mencius wrote it into his work. Afterward， Zhou Dunyi 周敦頤 （1017–1073）， the Cheng brothers， and Zhang Zai 张载 （1020–1077） recovered the lost knowledge of Confucius and then Zhu Xi wrote it into his work. Thanks to master Zhu， the world has been enlightened to the Way of sages since the Zhou dynasty （1046–256 BCE）. According to the Commentaries and Interpretations on the Four Books， in generations later there must be those who can grasp everything. This indicates that there must also be those who cannot.
In Huang’s opinion， Zhu Xi’s achievements in studying the Four Books could be seen as the continuance of the Cheng brothers’ teachings and became recorded as a part of Confucian orthodoxy. Then Confucian orthodoxy became a sign guiding later Confucius scholars， calling on them to carry on studies of Confucian doctrines， which is owed to not only Zhu Xi but also Huang Gan， who praised the former’s contribution to Confucian orthodoxy and deepened the principles contained in the Four Books， hence constructing the panorama of Confucian studies of the Ming dynasty. Conclusion [58]
The Complete Collection of the Four Books mainly drew from Huang Gan’s analysis of Confucian doctrines， because he praised Zhu Xi’s learning and ambition and because Confucian scholars intentionally associated the continuity of Confucian learning with Zhu Xi and his disciples to enhance Zhu’s academic status.
Huang Gan saw how hard Zhu Xi worked in studying the Four Books. He noted that at Analects 3：20， “My teacher stopped at this section when he re-edited his Commentaries and Interpretations in his late years.” As for Analects 19：6， he said， “In the early version of his Commentaries and Interpretations， my teacher interpreted it as ‘if one can focus his mind on his purposes， everything will benefit.’” Things are external while the mind is something internal， so Zhu Xi obviously attached importance to practice. Huang’s first-hand observations can help us to learn about how Zhu Xi’s thought was developed， and his detailed in-depth interpretations enhanced the latter’s academic relationship with Confucian orthodoxy， defining the direction of the group of Zhu Xi’s disciples and laying the foundation for the development of the studies of the Four Books.
According to William Theodore de Bary， “With the Four Books established as the basic curriculum throughout East Asia， there is a shared outlook—or， better， a shared inlook on the human center rather than an outlook on the world at large.” Such an achievement is naturally owed to the effort made by Zhu Xi， but on the other hand， Huang Gan’s contributions should not be overlooked， but should be studied in a deeper manner. The author of the present paper hereby lists some of his contributions as follows：
（1） The quotations made from Huang Gan by The Complete Collection of the Four Books are the key to learning about the group of Zhu Xi’s disciples， and about the post–Zhu development of the Four Books studies.
（2） Huang combined Zhu Xi’s thought， doctrines in the Four Books， and Confucian orthodoxy， forming what was understood as Confucian studies by later generations， and leading to the high status of Zhu Xi’s studies. He devoted his lifelong efforts to promoting his teacher through the Four Books. He held that the latter carried on Confucian orthodoxy. He finally raised the idea that the cultivation of respect within the Confucian genealogy and formed principles on morality， which led to a Confucianism with texts， history， and sentiments.
（3） He developed textual analysis into the philosophical argument of principle， focusing his interpretation on the grasp of the essence of ren. Commentaries and Interpretations on the Four Books manifested Zhu Xi’s lifelong studies， but there were still some details to be completed and perfected. Huang tried to prove， based on different sources， that his teacher’s ideas on the philosophy of principle remained unchanged， which helps us to know better about Zhu’s teachings. （4） He carried on Zhu’s genealogical studies of Confucian disciples， and paid special attention to moral cultivation， thus defining the Way through learning and then orthodoxy through the Way and shifting from Neo-Confucian metaphysics to Confucian ethics， from discussions about principles to holding fast to moral cultivation Therefore， Neo-Confucian analysis tended not to be so obscure as before thanks to his diligence and persistence.
（5） Zhu Xi praised Zhou Dunyi， the Cheng brothers， and Zhang Zai for their recovery of the lost knowledge about Confucianism while Huang held that his teacher， because of his sense of mission and his sentiments， continued the studies of the Yiluo School on the Four Books in the Northern Song so that the Confucian orthodoxy could be continued.
To conclude， The Complete Collection of the Four Books was the foundation of Confucian studies in the Ming dynasty. Huang Gan played a guiding role in integrating some divergences and defining the thread running through the book. What has been discussed in the present paper may not be complete， but hopefully it can arouse more discussions on the topic.
Translated by Peng Ping